eChapters

ABSTRACT

Punjab is the richest state in the country in term of per capita income and has earned the name as food bowl of the country by putting 84-85 per cent of its geographical area under highly intensive, technical and mechanical agriculture with cropping intensity as high as 185 per cent and contributing more than one third of rice and half of its wheat production to the central pool of food reserve. The food grain production in the state has increased approximately twelve times in a span of about 50 years after independence from 20 lac tones in 1950-51 to 234.89 lakh tonnes in 2002-2003. Achieving this high productivity without caring for natural resources has resulted in a considerable loss in the inherent production potential and deterioration of soil health. As a result, man is getting serious warning signals in the form of lowering of water table, drought, high rate of environmental pollution, extremes of climatic parameters, etc. Agriculture in the state has become too intensive, wasteful and reckless and the radical changes are required to maintain the balance. Therefore, there is a strong thinking to diversify farming in the state to maintain the sustainability of the whole system. The state government is stressing hard to save the natural resources through the diversification in traditional crop rotation and adopt resource-conserving measures.

Facilities required for propagating many plant species by seed, cuttings, or grafting and budding include two basic units namely a structure with temperature control and ample light such as a greenhouse or hot bed where seeds can be germinated or cuttings rooted. The second unit is a structure into which the young tender plants can be moved for hardening preparatory to transplanting and cold frames or lath houses are useful for this purpose.Greenhouses: There are different types of greenhouse namely low cost greenhouse and commercial greenhouses. In all polyhouses/ greenhouses means of providing air movement and air exchange is necessary to aid in controlling temperature and humidity It is best, if possible, to have in the greenhouse heating and self-opening ventilators and evaporative cooling systems. Plastic greenhouses covered with various types of plastic film have become very popular among nursery men.

Cashew being a highly cross pollinated crop, planting of seedling is not recommended. In the past seed propagation was in vogue, which has resulted into large variation in plants due to highly heterozygous nature. However, it is seldom practiced now-a-days except to raise the rootstock materials. Selection of seed is very important for raising rootstock material. Seed nuts which are heavy and sink in water should be selected for raising seedling. Seed nuts should be collected from high yielding trees. Seed nuts collected from the current season’s crop during March, April and May are the best for seed production as they have been found to give high percentage of seed germination. Studies conducted to investigate the time taken and germination percentage revealed that heavy nuts (sunken in water) gave 92 per cent germination on 14-17 days, whereas floating nuts took 14-22 days and gave 64 per cent germination (Krishnamurthy et al., 1985).

Media for plant growth and seed germination has great significance in nursery business. It is the basic need of the propagation industry. The material for rooting and growing media may be used either alone or incorporated with one or more products in combination. The materials used for rooting media may be naturally occurring or may be manufactured artificially.

Characteristics of an ideal rooting medium: These are as follows.

1. The medium must be sufficiently firm and dense to hold the cuttings or seeds in place during rooting or germination.
2. It must retain sufficient water and air, allowing sufficient drainage.
3. It should be highly decomposed and stable.
4. It must be free from weed seeds, insect pests and diseases.
5. Acidity or alkalinity should be the optimum for different species.
6. Its volume must be fairly constant, when either wet or dry.
7. It must be capable of being sterilized.

As stated by Murashige’s definition, artificial seed (or synthetic/synseed) technology was initially restricted to species in which somatic embryogenesis was possible. Later, Bapat and co-workers (1987) proposed to broaden the technology to the encapsulation of various in vitro-derived propagules, and they used axillary buds of Morus indica as a first example of this new application. The new concept paved the way for the encapsulation of explants other than somatic embryos, and to the formulation of a new definition of artificial seeds (Aitken-Christie et al. 1995) as “artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoots, or other tissues which can be used for sowing under in vitro or ex vitro conditions”. In other words, the “new” artificial seed, lost the original bond of containing an embryo (zygotic or somatic), can now contain any kind of explant from tissue culture (such as axillary buds, shoot tips, nodal segments, bulblets, protocorms, callus samples, cells) which, following ‘germination’, will evolve into a plantlet or a shoot (artificial seed conversion) or will produce new cell proliferation (artificial seed regrowth).

Realization of synthetic seed technology requires manipulation of in vitro culture system for large-scale production of viable materials for preparation of synthetic seed, subsequently conversion into complete plants under in vitro as well as in vivo conditions. Somatic and gametic embryogenesis that enhanced axillary bud proliferation are the efficient techniques for rapid and large-scale multiplication of desirable plant species. Plant tissues such as somatic embryos, apical shoot tips, axillary shoot buds, embryogenic calli, and protocom-like bodies are potential micropropagules that have been considered for creating synthetic seeds. Encapsulations of somatic embryos, apical and axillary shoot buds, and regeneration of whole plants from them have been reported for a number of plant species (Redenbaug et al., 1986; Mathur et al., 1989; Ganapathi et al., 1992; Lulsdorf et al., 1993).

Protected cultivation provides controlled or modified growing environments that enable horticultural crops to be produced beyond their normal climatic limitations. This chapter covers greenhouses, polyhouses, shade nets, insect-proof structures, tunnels, and other protected systems. It explains environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, light, ventilation, carbon dioxide, irrigation, and fertigation. Protected cultivation can improve productivity, quality, resource-use efficiency, and production timing while reducing exposure to adverse weather and certain pests. The chapter also discusses crop selection, substrate culture, automation, and integrated management. Proper environmental control and economic planning are essential because protected systems involve higher initial investment but can generate high returns through quality produce and extended market opportunities.

Essential oils are products of secondary metabolism and are secreted by specialized cells located in specified parts of most plants. By virtue of certain characteristic properties, they have wide spread use in perfumery, flavouring and medicine. Essential oils are variable mixtures of terpenoids. Since these oils are produced by plants, composition varies with species and variety of plant besides geography, climate and cultivation practices. Since, chemical components are highly reactive, physical and chemical environment to which oil is subjected to during the processes of its extraction, processing and storage have a great influence on final composition. Entire chain of activities from cultivation, extraction, processing, storage to packing has to be perfectly standardized and regulated to assure end product consistency. Being a valuable item of trade, this is important from the point of view of delivering desired activity as well as safety to consumer.

Quality Control is very important in biofertilizer production, which determines the efficiency of microbial strains. Generally, the quality control based on BIS are voluntary in nature. However, some of the biofertilizers are brought under the ambit of Fertilizer Control Order 1985 (FCO) during 2006 (Yadav and Chandra, 2014). At present, biofertilizers are under the FCO with specific quality standards. Biofertilizer production and its sales can be regulated and is a mandatory requirement for registration of manufacturing unit with the State Fertilizer Controller (who is generally the Commissioner or Director of Agriculture Department) under the statutory provision of FCO. Moreover, some officers of the Agriculture Department have been declared as Fertilizer Inspectors at the district level, who are authorized to inspect production and storage facilities and draw samples for quality analysis. National Centre of Organic Farming (NCOF), Ghaziabad under the Govt. of India and its six Regional Centre’s located at Bhubaneswar, Bangalore, Jabalpur, Nagpur, Hissar and Imphal have been declared as testing laboratories. Under the provisions of the FCO act, State Governments can also develop their own quality control laboratories and notify them under the FCO (1985). Peat, lignite, peat soil, humus, wood charcoal or similar material favouring the growth of microbial strain could also be used. The FCO specifications for different biofertilizers are presented below:

1. ‘Agrostoogical’ refers to cultivation of_____________. (Grasses)
2. Land on which the potential plant community is composed periodically of native grass, forbs and shrubs valuable for forage and in sufficient quantity to justifying grazing use is called as_____________. (Rangeland)
3. The basic object of range management is to_____________ and_____________ the rangeland for higher production of fodder, rich in nutritive value and palatability. (Improve & maintain)
4. ICAR had carried a grassland survey of India in 1954 by Wnyte, Venkatramanan and Dabadghao had found_____________ types of grass land in different environment. (8)
5. The main reason for the enormous increase in livestock population is_____________. (Social attitude of the people)
6. All the vegetation consumed by grazing animals including fruits and twigs of trees and shrubs is called_____________. (Pasturage & forage)
7. The practice by which the gap can be bridged between the requirement and availability of animal feeds and fodder is known as_____________. (Grass land techniques)
8. The scientists_____________ have recognised five type of grass covers in India. (Dabadghao & Shankar Narayan, 1979)
9. The maximum area of about 2.8 milloin square kilometre is covered under_____________ type of grassland in India. (Phragmites Saccharum type)

Microbes present in the biofertilizer formulations help in microbial processes in the soil which augment the availability of nutrients to be taken up by plants. They are of different types based on their nature and function such as nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing, phosphate mobilizing or biofertilizers for micronutrients. Plants use different strategies for growth promotion at different stages of plant growth and development. Biofertilizers are mass multiplied cultures of specific beneficial microbial strains which improves the fertility of soil and productivity. The nutrients are added through natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilization of phosphorus and synthesis of growth promoting substances to stimulate the plant growth. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.

11.1. Bio-enrichment of chemical fertilizers- A new approach

Yield response of different host plant depends on the mineral fertilizer and its fertilizer use efficiency. Generally, such fertilizers are low in efficiency due to environmental and soil factors. A large portion of synthetic fertilizers are lost due to fixation, leaching, run-off, erosion, volatilization, denitrification and precipitation without reaching plants. Hence, there is an economic loss and water and environmental pollution.

Microbial inoculants applied to the soil enhances the uptake of nutrient by plants and increase the efficiency of synthetic or organic fertilizers. In this context, it is possible to impregnate mineral fertilizers with specific microbial strain. A new approach is to incorporate the microbes or microbial compositions into fertilizer compositions.

A high-yielding cultivar Vallabh Medha of mandukparni (Centella asiatica) was identified. Fresh herbage yield (12,331 kg/ha) and dry herbage yield (2,113 kg/ ha) of this variety were far more than the local variety (2,050 and 392 kg/ha respectively), besides higher active ingredients. Among mucuna selections, IIHR PS 15 with long duration, IIHR PS 6 with medium duration and IIHR PS 14 with short duration recorded significantly higher yield and high L-dopa yield/ plant. In Coleus, a promising hybrid, Hy 08-53, recorded significantly higher root yield (60.22g) and higher forskolin yield/plant (0.58 g). In ashwagandha, IIHR- WS 3 was found to be the best yielder (11.65 q/ha).

Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.)

The crop requires cool and dry climate during the growing season. Sowing of seeds at 4 kg/ha in 0.25-0.50 cm depth during November 20 to December 20 was recommended. In medium black cotton soil of Malwa region, second week of November was reported to be optimum time for sowing. Broadcasting of seeds followed by light sweeping with broom found to give uniform germination. A spacing of 30x 45 cm found to be most ideal to get higher seed yield in Isabgol under Madhya Pradesh situation. Response of chemical fertilisers was found low. However, a fertiliser dose of 25 kg/ha each of N and P₂O₅ as basal dose and 25 kg/ha N as top dressing at 30-42 DAS was recommended for commercial cultivation in Gujarat while 50 kg/ha N reported to increase the seed yield in Madsaur areas of Madhya Pradesh. At Anand three irrigations viz. first at the time of sowing and subsequently at 30 and 70 days after sowing (DAS) proved to be beneficial. However, four irrigations at sowing, 10,25, and 50 DAS at Mandsaur are recommended. Chemical weed control was found to be economical and a pre-sowing or pre-emergence application of Isoproturone (0.5 kg ai/ha) was recommended for weed control. One spray of Metalaxyl + two sprays of Mancozeb were found significantly superior in controlling downy mildew. In Gujarat, Pearl millet in Kharif and Isabgol in Rabi season are advocated as a suitable crop rotation. Groundnut-Isabgol rotation gave higher economic return followed by Soybean-Isabgol and Pigeon pea-Isabgol rotations in Maharashtra.

High-yielding crop varieties and hybrids with tolerance to pests /diseases and to various farming constraints such as soil and water salinity, soil acidity, drought, flood and such other factors have been developed.

Eight cardamom hybrids, NKE 12 × MB 5 (1,499 kg/ha), MB 5 × NKE 19 (1,461 kg/ha), GG × NKE 12 (1,350 kg/ha), RR 1 × CCS 1 (1,245 kg/ha), CCS 1 × RR 1 (1,022 kg/ha), ASH (1,930 kg/ha), NKE 12 × GG (1,746 kg/ha), GG × NKE 19 (1,635 kg/ha), were identified for high yield and resistance to mosaic and rhizome rot diseases. Two unique mutants, AFg-3 and AFg-4, for powdery mildew resistance were isolated in fenugreek. In ajwain, AA 93 has been developed which flowers 40 days earlier compared to other varieties. Thirty- two elite saffron clones were selected and evaluated for fresh and dry weight of pistil, stiga and style length, and weight. CITH 125 (4.5 kg/ha), CITH 123 (4.3 kg/ha), CITH 124 (4.3 kg/ha), CITH 122 (4.0 kg/ha), CITH 12 (4.5 kg/ha), CITH 121 (3.9 kg/ha), CITH 107 (3.8 kg/ha), CITH 120 (3.8 kg/ha) and CITH 104 (3.7 kg/ha), having higher saffron yield were identified.

High-yielding Plantation crops varieties and hybrids with tolerance to pests / diseases and to various farming constraints such as soil and water salinity, soil acidity, drought, flood and such other factors have been developed.

Three coconut varieties (IND 045S, IND 048S and IND 058S), two arecanut varieties (VTL 62-Shriwardhan selection and VTL7-Nalbari) and two selections of cocoa (VTLC 1 and VTLC 57) were identified for commercial cultivation. Coconut variety, Kalpa Samrudhi, was recommended for commercial cultivation in Kerala and Asom, and Kalpa Sankara and Kalpasree for coconut root(wilt)- affected tracts in Kerala. Molecular-markers associated with hybridity in coconut, dwarfness and resistance to root (wilt) and yellow leaf diseases were utilized. Homology-basedmodelling of somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinase (SERK) protein in coconut, development of a computational tool for detection of microsatellites in whole genome sequences, development of algorithm for gene annotation and genome-wide analysis of microsatellites in strains of plant growth promoting (P. fluorescens) are achievements in bioinformatics.

Cost-effective farming systems for spices cultivation for increasing production and productivity in different agro ecologies have been developed.

An organic package for production of black pepper, ginger and turmeric by applying farmyard manure, vermicompost, ash, rock phosphate, Azospirillum sp. and phosphobacteria and Trichoderma sp. and Pseudomonas sp. as biocontrol agents for disease control was developed. Further, a foliar spray of 1% solution of complex fertilizer 19 : 19 : 19 (N : P : K) during spike initiation period (April second week, May first week and May fourth week) during lean cropping season under irrigated condition enhanced black pepper (cv. Panniyur I) yield by 20–25%. Soil application of zinc up to 10 kg/ ha or foliar spraying of ZnSO4 (0.25%) and Borax (0.2%) twice (60 and 90 days after planting) was recommended for higher yield and quality for turmeric in zinc and boron deficient soil.

Among all the treatments, sprinkler and drip irrigation methods caused early sprouting; early flowering with increased plant height and more number of leaves and flowers/plant as compared to the control (rainfed). Also, stiga fresh weight, dry weight, length and saffron yield were improved in sprinkler and drip irrigation methods over the control. Raised beds resulted in early sprouting, early flowering with increased plant height and more number of leaves and flowers/plant.

Cost-effective farming systems for plantation crops cultivation for increasing production and productivity in different agro ecologies have been developed.

In coconut-based cropping system, elephant-foot yam cv. Gajendra yielded high amount of corm. Guinea grass (var. GGCo 3) produced higher green fodder (89.2 tonnes/ ha/year) under husk application. There was lower specific volume of soil and soil porosity (higher soil compaction), and soil dehydrogenase activity (an index of biological activity) as important abiotic pre-disposing factors in incidence of root wilt disease. Growing Gomphrena globosa as intercrop in root wilt- affected coconut gardens has been shown to be cost-effective and sustainable. In areca-based mixed farming system, total cash inflows and outflows from arecanut + dairy (3–4 milch cows) amounted to ‘4.41 and ‘5.96 lakh, with a net profit of’1.55 lakh. The system productivity of arecanut + cocoa system (3,127 kg/ha) was 30% higher per unit area than arecanut alone (2,405 kg/ha). Integrated nutrient management on four improved arecanut varieties recorded highest chali yield (4.19 kg).

A protocol for SYBR green based real-time RT-PCRfor detection of Piper yellow mottle virus and Cucumber mosaic virus infecting black pepper and Cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV) and Banana bract mosaic virus (BBrMV) infecting cardamom was developed. A native isolate of Phytophthora capsici (Is. No. 98-93) infecting black pepper was completely sequenced using next generation sequencing platform, Illumina-Solexa GA II. The sequence data was assembled by taking Joint Genome Institute’s P. capsici as reference genome. The treatment of black pepper cuttings with Carbendazim + Mancozeb (0.1%) was effective for the management of anthracnose disease in nursery.

The black pepper accession, 1114 (Kumbhachola), was tolerant to P. capsici. The accession was earlier found resistant to pollu beetle and drought. A new bacterial wilt disease on small cardamom was recorded in Wayanad, Kerala. The phenotypic and genetic characterization revealed that causative organism is Ralstonia solanacearum (Biovar 3 phylotype 1) and was 100% similar to ginger strain of R. solanacearum. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (GRB 35) and Serratia marcescens (GRB 68) were promising for enhancing sprouting of rhizomes, growth promotion and reducing the incidence of soft rot and bacterial wilt diseases in ginger in the field.

Crop protection research has brought out tangible and effective methods to suppress various pests in major agro-ecosystems. Indigenous knowledge in this regard has been tested and validated for its suitability.

Among the 137 Phytophthora isolates collected from bud rot/fruit rot affected coconut gardens in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, four isolates from bud rot affected gardens were identified as P. nicotianae and one as P. capsici. Since, P. nicotianae is found associated with bud rot disease of coconut in three districts representing three states, it is expected that this may emerge as a major pathogen of coconut. Further, placing Trichoderma coir pith cake in the innermost leaf axils of coconut palm in disease endemic areas just before the onset of southwest monsoon (May-end) and thereafter at two months interval was found to be very effective in the management of bud rot disease of coconut.