eChapters

INTRODUCTION
Canopy management is one of the most important management practices in an orchard. It is the ‘art’ of fruit growing involving manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality fruits. In fact it forms the basis of precociousness, productivity and longevity of the fruit trees. Canopy management is an important aspect of fruit culture due to its effect on yield, quality, vigour, and the prevention of diseases.
 
In orchard, light is critical to the growth and development of trees and their fruits. The green leaves harvest the sunlight to produce carbohydrates and sugars which are transported to the sites where they are needed – buds, flowers and fruits. Better light penetration into the tree canopy improves tree growth, yield and fruit quality. Training and pruning, affects the tree shape and facilitate exposure of leaves to sunlight. An ideal training strategy centres around the arrangement of plant parts, especially, to develop a better plant architecture that optimizes the utilization of sunlight and promotes productivity. Besides, development of strong scaffold system helps the trees to produce heavy crop loads of quality fruits without any major limb breakage.

Abstract: The adoption of agroforestry systems has gained wider attention in the Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEA), international academia and policy makers for their multifunctional role and dynamics of ecosystem services. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has put forward ecosystem approach while Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emphasized agroforestry as an appropriate means to reduce emissions and enhance sinks of green house gases. Traditional agroforestry systems such as cardamom-based and farm-based practices are good examples in the Eastern Himalayas. We analyzed the management diversities and functional roles of these agroforestry systems for their productive and protective functions, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, reduction of run-off rainfall, improvement of soil fertility, nutrient dynamics, nutrient release through decomposition, N2-fixation, energetics and efficiencies. Use of N2-fixing Himalayan alder (Alnus nepalensis) in large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) and Albizia spp. in mandarin agroforestry are traditional innovations. The agroforestry systems and practices are examples of how fragile and steep slopes of the mountains are converted into ecologically resilient productive zones. These adaptive traditional agroforestry provide options for sustainable management of natural resources from a unit land use types to a landscape level land use stages and offer opportunities for socioeconomic benefits.

Introduction

India is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres, roughly 2.5 percent of global landmass but is home to 17.9 percent of global human population and 1/5 of the livestock. Most of this increase in human population has occurred in second half of 20th century. Similarly, India has the highest number of cattle (210.2 m), buffaloes (111.3 m) and goats (150.4 m) in the world. It ranks second in sheep (74 m), fifth in chickens (866 m) and sixth in ducks (26 m). The increased population and associated increased demand of resources has led to significant impact on land use-land cover and has consequence in negatively impacting various ecosystem services i.e., hydrology, soil conservation, wildlife support, biodiversity and environmental protection, these agroforestry systems used to provide. Agroforestry has traditionally been a way of life and livelihood in India for centuries. Now it is a modern science inviting deliberate management of trees on farms and surrounding landscape (Bargali et al. 2009; 

Appendices
    
I.    Released Varieties/Hybrids in Aromatic Crops from KAU
     P. Skaria Baby, P.P. Joy, Samuel Mathew, Ancy Joseph and Ragina Joseph 
    
IIa.    Released Varieties of Fruit Crops in India
    T. Radha
    
IIb    Released Varieties of Arid Fruits
    S.K. Sharma
    
III.    Released Varieties of Ornamental Plants
    P.K .Valsala Kumari 
    
IVa.    Released Varieties of Coconut
    P. Maheswarappa
    
IVb.    Release Varieties of Cocoa
    P. Maheswarappa
    
IVc.    Released Varieties of Plantation Crops
    P. Maheswarappa
    
Va    Released Varieties of Spices from Kerala Agricultural University (KAU)
    Asha Sankar 
        
Released Varieties of Spice Crops Through All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices
    K. Nirmal Babu
    
Vb    Released Varieties of Spice Crops Through All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices
    K. Nirmal Babu
    
VI    Released Varieties of Vegetables from KAU
    T.R. Gopalakrishnan
    
VII.    Research and Educational Infrastructure in Horticulture in India
    P.G. Sadhan Kumar and S. Nirmala Devi
    
VIII.    Important Websites in Horticulture
    T. Pradeepkumar 
    
VIIIa.    Horticulture Institutes in India
    T. Pradeepkumar 
    
IX.    Vital Statistics on Horticultural Crops
    National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon, Haryana
    
X.    Nutritional Values of Horticultural Crops
        Indian Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad

INTRODUCTION
 
Growth and development are often used interchangeably, however, these describe separate events during the life cycle of a plant. To understand these precisely, let us take the example of multicellular organisms like annuals, monocarpic or flowering plants (angiosperms) including fruits, vegetables, flowers etc. which begins their life from a single cell fertilized egg, the zygote. The zygote develops into embryo through the cell division and differentiation. When we sow the seed in garden or pots, in a few days a young seedling emerge. With the passage of time, the seedling grow in size, the number of leaves increases, in perennial plants branching occurs for few years, and after putting forth the requisite vegetative growth plant begins flowering, produces fruits, seeds and finally the plant senesce at certain period. Generally three terms “growth”, differentiation” and “development” are used to describe the different events during the life cycle of a plant.

Abstract: The study reports the influence of biophysical and socio-cultural factors on composition, diversity and distribution of plant species in the homegardens of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago of India. In Nicobar mostly an aboriginal tribe the Nicobari predominates. The Nicobaries are Christians. However, in the Andamans people from different parts of Indian subcontinent have been rehabilitated in the mid twentieth century. Mixed culture prevails in South Andaman, but in the other Andaman islands either Bengali or Tamil culture predominates. Biophysically, South Andaman is hilly whereas Nicobar is flat. Rests of the islands lie in-between the two extremes. But, all are similar climatically. Twelve to thirty-four plant species are found in the homegardens that are planted, cared and harvested. These plants are: palm, fruit, spice and forest trees, formed three-storey structure in Andaman and two-storey structure in Nicobar’s homegardens. Floristic similarity among the homegardens of the Andamans is 82 to 92%. However, it is only 12-18% between the homegardens of Andaman and Nicobar. Compared to Nicobar, species richness is greater in the homegardens of the Andamans. But, diversity is higher and evenness lower in the homegardens of Nicobar. All plant species in the Nicobar’s homegardens are spontaneous in regeneration. Among the Andamans, proportion of spice trees is higher in the homegardens of South Andaman, mango and citrus in North Andaman, and pineapple and vegetables

1.    Greenhouse Effect
    
2.    Global Warming
    
3.    Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
    
4.    Aerosols and Global Cooling
    
5.    Clouds and Global Warming/Cooling
    
6.    Ozone Depletion and UV Radiation

7.    Climate and Horticulture
    
8.    Climate and Cashew
    
9.    Climate and Cardamom
    
10.    Climate and Coffee
    
11.    Climate and Tea
    
12.    Climate and Cocoa
    
13.    Climate and Coconut
        
References

Introduction

Arid regions of the world are diverse in terms of climate, soils, vegetation, animals and life style and activities of people. The binding feature of all arid regions in the world is aridity. Of the total area of arid zones of the world, Africa, accounts for 46.1 % followed by Asia (35.5 %). Majority of rest 19.4 % of arid zones are spread over in Australia, North America (Mexico and Southern part of USA), and South America. The Indian arid zone covers around 12 % of country’s geographical area occupying 31.8 million ha of land of which major part is in northwestern India (28.57 Mha) and some in southern India (3.13 Mha). It covers parts of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan states of India (Table 1 and Fig. 1). The arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana together constitute Great Indian Desert, better known as Thar. As arid western Rajasthan accounts for 61% of hot arid region of country, therefore it is considered principle hot arid region. Major part of it occurs between Aravalli ranges on the east and southeast and Thal desert of Pakistan (Thal desert is simply the western extension of Thar, only name has been changed) which is spread up to Suleman Kithara ranges in extreme west.

1.    Placement
    
2.    Growing Media
    
3.    Media Preparation
    
4.    Containers
    
5.    Potting
    
6.    Propagation
    
7.    Watering
    
8.    Feeding
    
9.    Diseases
    
10.    Precautions
    
11.    Indoor Plants

11.1    Maturity Indices
    
11.2    Harvesting and Field Handling
    
11.3    Packhouse Operations
    
11.4    Packaging
    
11.5    Precooling

Introduction

Tree growing in hot arid region is basically concerned with the management of trees for conservation and for limited production objectives like wood for fuel, poles and fencing material; leaves for livestock fodder; and pod/seeds for many types use in human diet. The role of trees to conserve the fragile ecosystems of hot arid regions has been well recognized (Mann and Muthana 1984). The trees also provided so many services to mankind, which make them an intricate part of man-livestock-agriculture continuum, the lifeline of hot arid regions (Saxena 1997). 

Abstract: Agro-ecosystem analysis of the island farming system revealed four distinct micro farming situations (MFS) viz., Hilly (MFS I), Slopping hilly upland (MFS II), Medium upland valley (MFS III) and Low lying valley (MFS IV). The enterprise combination study indicated the suitability of plantation based cropping sequences + backyard poultry and livestock in hilly areas, Short and medium duration paddy, vegetables, floriculture, plantations, fodder + backyard poultry + goat,  fish cum poultry cum duck and cattle in slopping hilly uplands, vegetables, plantations + backyard poultry, fish cum poultry cum duck in medium upland valley and long and short duration paddy, vegetables + backyard poultry, fish cum poultry and cattle in low lying valley micro farming situations. Productivity and profitability analysis of different farming systems under various micro farming situations revealed that net return obtained from cropping was Rs 3,26,408,  livestock and poultry was Rs 64,300 in MFS I where as under MFS II, it is Rs. 1,53,989 from cropping, Rs 77,176 from livestock and backyard poultry and Rs 12,465 from poultry + duck + fish. In MFS III, net return obtained from cropping was Rs 9,297 livestock was Rs 72,306 and poultry was Rs. 2,630 and poultry + duck + fish was Rs 24,957. Similarly, in MFS IV, net return obtained from cropping was Rs 57,760 where as Rs 90,893 was obtained from livestock, Rs 11,000 from backyard poultry and Rs 14,872 from poultry

The forest cover in most tropical countries has been under severe pressure and is diminishing at an alarming speed; consequently, they are experiencing severe biodiversity losses, reverting to a mature state at a slower rate with low resiliency. These tropical countries are aware of the danger causing due to the loss of forests, and large afforestation programmes have been launched by forest departments, private companies, and donor-supported projects. Nevertheless, plantation activities have rarely been able to keep pace with the deforestation rate, not to mention replacing what has been lost during the past. Plantation programme through afforestation activity is not only the matter of the forest department alone but also the combined responsibility of all the foresters. The appeal of forest planting has changed over the years following the broader demand spectrum.

To some extent, the forest plantations fail to create the diversity of plants and wildlife that has been lost. Hitherto, large-scale plantations are still necessary both directly to cater to the needs of industrial wood and help to minimize the pressure on the remaining natural forests. During the past decades, many government programmes have emphasized using 

Bananas and plantains constitute the fourth most important global food commodity (after rice, wheat and maize). They are cultivated in over 120 countries in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world in an area of  approximately 100 million hectares, where they constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people, as well as providing a valued source of income through local and international trade.
 
Banana is one of the oldest fruit crops of India, finding its reference even in epics like Ramayana. India is  believed to be one of centres of  origin, besides southeast Asian countries like Burma, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. It is a crop having multifarious uses as every part of the plant is utilized and hence aptly  called as ‘Kalpatharu’ the plant of virtues. It is important internationally from the point of view of  trade as well as livelihood security.

Introduction

Human civilization used to undergo several form of disasters throughout its life history. Most of such events are unpredictable, sudden and short in duration, and such events can easily classifiable as either natural (e.g. cyclones, earth quake, natural forest fires and tsunami) or manmade such as spread of toxic chemicals (e.g. Bhopal disaster 1984), nuclear explosions, civil war, diseases (Minamata, itaiitai, etc.). However, climate change is a real time prolonged disaster which is caused by both natural (caused by variation in solar irradiance, variations in orbital parameters of earth, volcanic activities, natural forest fire, methane release from thawing of permafrost from ocean floor, natural wetlands and cattle) and anthropogenic means (by greenhouse gases resulted from human activities-all kinds of combustion, industrial production of greenhouse gases and agricultural water lodging activities such as paddy cultivation and artificial wet lands, and deforestation).

Introduction

It is well known that, over 50% of requirement of food for the entire humanity is obtained from just three crops- rice, maize and wheat though 150 crops are commercialized globally. Ethnobotanically, over 7000 plants species are cultivated or harvested from the wild which represent immense agro-biodiversity. Most of these species are under exploited but have the potential for contributing to food security, health (nutritional/medicinal), income generation and environmental services. Examples include little millets which provide calcium and iron and vitamins like niacin and sulphur containing amino acids, having more fiber than rice and wheat. Some other species which have in the recent past contributed to income generation in Indian arid zone include ber, anola, karonda and gonda. Likewise the perennial grasses in this area are not only source of nutritious fodder but also the grains e.g. gramana (Panicum antidotale) are consumed during famine. They have acquired importance being alternative sources of income as also alternate life support system during crisis. They often have neutraceutical, medicinal uses or often multiple uses. Demand for traditional food in large multi-ethnic cities and metros have brought these species into sharp focus, Hence, these are being viewed now as potential candidate for diversification in the cropping system, conservation of bio-diversity, enhancing the limits of green revolution even during climate change and finally as provider of molecules for curing various ailments of men and animals.

Introduction

Rain fed agroecosystem occupies 68% of India’s cultivated area and supports 40% of the human beings and 65% of the livestock population. It produces 44% of food requirements, thus has and will continue to play a critical role in India’s agriculture (Singh et al. 2004). Besides their well established role in agriculture, livestock have crucial role in food security and as risk aversion mechanism for sustaining family, whenever there is crop failure. Indian hot arid zone which is about 12% of total geographical area of the landmass of 0.32 million km2 has maximum covering in western Rajasthan i.e. 61% of the total area whereas the other areas in arid region are available in the states of Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka accounting for 20, 5, 4, 7 and 3% of hot arid area whereas the cold arid area of 8.4 million ha lies in the state of Jammu & Kashmir covering the Leh and Ladakh region.

1.    Breeding Systems Utilized in Production of Vegetable Hybrids
    
2.    Male Sterility-Theory
    
3.    Hybrid Seed Production in Chilli Using GMS
    
4.    Hybrid Seed Production in Muskmelon Using GMS
    
5.    Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility
    
6.    Hybrid Seed Production in Onion Using CMS
    
7.    Hybrid Seed Production in Hot Pepper Using CMS
    
8.    Self-Incompatibility Systems
    
9.    Types of Incompatibility
    
10.    Hybrid Cultivars in Cauliflower and Cabbage
    
11.    Male Sterility in Tomato and its Uses in Hybrid Seed Production
        
References

Introduction

The area under salt-affected soils in India is estimated to be 6.73 Mha spread over a number of states across the country. This 6.73 million ha are lying barren or produce very uneconomical yields of crops due to excessive accumulation of salts. These soils are agriculturally unproductive because of the high content of soluble salts which had harmful effects on plant growth due to moisture stress and toxicity/deficiency of some of the ions and the exchangeable sodium ions in clay complex lead to the unfavorable physical conditions of for the plant growth and water movement (Bhumla 1977). Saline and sodic soils have excess concentration of either soluble or exchangeable sodium, calcium and magnesium primarily in the form of chlorides and sulphates. Salt affected areas an expected to increase with spread of waterlogging and salinity due to increase in canal irrigation, and intensive exploitation of poor quality ground waters for agriculture in non canal commands. Certain states like Rajasthan and Haryana located in the western part of the country are endowed with 84 and 62% of poor quality ground waters, respectively. Continuous use of such waters for irrigation to agricultural crops is bound to increase the problem of salinity and sodicity in India (Yadav 1989; Minhas and Bajwa 2001). Introduction of irrigation without making proper provision for drainage is the major cause for the development of salinity in canal commands.It is severe on irrigated lands of the dry zone. It reduces crop yield and in severe cases causes complete abandonment of agriculture (Joshi and Dhir 1989; Joshi et al. 2000; Mahesh Kumar et al. 2016). The present paper deals with extent, causes, characteristics and management options of these soils for sustainability of agriculture in the area.

1.    Marketing Scenario of Fruits and Vegetables
    
2.    Marketing Systems of Fruits and Vegetables
    
3.    Vertical Coordination in Food Chain
    
4.    Supply Chain Management
    
5.    Post Harvest Management
        
References