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Sapota or sapidilla or bully tree or chiku (Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg) is a delicious tropical fruit crop, was introduced from tropical America. Among lesser-known fruits, area expansion and production of sapota have been observed spectacular. During as the area under sapota is fast increasing and this crop is attaining the status of major fruit crop.

PRESENT STATUS

India is considered to be the largest producer of sapota in the world, though it is considered to be a minor crop in India (Bal, 1997). The area under sapota in India during 2000-01 was 69,400 ha with a production of 6.74 lakh tonnes, while during the year 2012-13, it was 164000 ha with a production of 14.95 lakh tonnes (ICAR-DataBook 2014). The area under sapota is increasing so rapidly owing to a wider range of adaptability. In many regions, cultivation of sapota is preferred over mango (Bal, 1997). The important sapota growing states are Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. Recently, our country has made a beginning in export to Middle East countries.

This chapter introduces the scientific, biological, chemical, and economic importance of medicinal and aromatic plants associated with forest and allied systems. It examines their classification and diversity, chemical constituents, harvesting practices, processing, value addition, and extraction techniques. The chapter highlights the potential of these plants as valuable biological resources and explores approaches for their productive utilization. Sustainable harvesting, appropriate processing, and value addition are important for improving their economic potential while supporting conservation and responsible management of plant resources.

Secondary Growth in Dicot Stem

The formation of secondary tissue from the lateral meristem is called secondary growth. It increase in diameter of the stem. A stem with secondary tissues is called secondary stem. Secondary tissues are formed by two types of lateral meristem, vascular cambium and cork cambium or phellogen. Vascular cambium produces secondary vascular tissues while phellogen form periderm. Secondary growth occurs in perennial dicots such as trees and shrubs. It is also found in the woody stems of herbs. In such cases, the secondary growth is equivalent to one annual ring, e.g. sunflower.

Formation of secondary vascular tissues

They are formed by the vascular cambium. Vascular cambium is produces by two types of meristems: intrafascicular and interfascicular cambium.

1. Intrafascicular cambium is a primary meristem which occurs as strips in vascular bundles.

2. Interfascicular cambium arises secondarily from the cells of medullary rays which occur at the level of intrafascicular strips.

3. These two types of meristematic tissues get connected to form a ring of vascular cambium

Seed bearing plants

Seed-bearing plants are broadly categorized in two major types: the gymnosperms and the angiosperms which are together grouped in Division Spermatophyta in the older system of classification for the plant kingdom. Consequently, seed plants are presently classified into multiple phyla. Still, for the purpose of learning basic concepts, it is convenient to group plants informally as spermatophytes (sperm "seed" + phyte "plant"). The spermatophytes are the most complex and evolutionarily advanced plants. Unlike ferns and bryophytes which reproduce and disperse by unicellular spores, spermatophytes reproduce and disperse by means of multi-cellular seeds which consist a protective seed coat surrounding an embryonic sporophyte and its food supply. This group of seed plants exhibits an alternation of generations in which the sporophyte is dominant. Furthermore, the gametophyte is microscopic and heterosporous with the latter term meaning that these seed plants produce two types of spores: microspores and megaspores that give rise to separate male gametophytes (micro-gametophytes) and female gametophytes (mega-gametophytes) respectively. The megaspore is never released from the sporangium; thus, the female gametophyte develops within the sporangium while being still attached to the sporophyte.

The collection of cones/fruits and seeds is the first step in the harvest, processing, and storage of seed in which man interacts with nature in determining ultimate seed quality. Successful collection, therefore, depends on understanding seed maturation and dispersal characteristics of each species, knowing local weather trends, and evaluating crop quality. Collection of propagating material is an expensive process and it is therefore also important that areas wherein cones and seeds are to be collected are evaluated to determine whether a sufficiently heavy crop to permit economic collection of seeds is present and whether the seed zone and elevation represented by the candidate area is appropriate for the production of seedlings needed in the reforestation program. Remember that properly collected, processed, and stored seeds may remain viable for a decade, so evaluation of seed needs may be projected well in advance of current harvest schedules through proper planning and organization of seed collection.

Seed dormancy

Plants evolve many mechanisms that ensure their survival. For instance, some species produce prodigious number of seeds so that even if only a small proportion germinate and grow, some seedlings will survive. Alternately, dormancy can be defined as: a seed characteristic, the degree of which defines what conditions should be met to make the seed germinate. This definition may be more useful in understanding dormancy because it suggests that dormancy is variable, rather than constant, which is the situation that we generally encounter in the native populations of many species. The staggering of germination (dormancy) is an advantage for seeds that mature in late summer to early fall, since immediate germination would leave vulnerable seedlings exposed to harsh winter conditions.

Abstract

Although  people have harvested seeds and fruit from trees for centuries, only after World War II, the science and theories of forest genetics begin to be seriously applied to and practiced in operational forestry around the world. The genetic improvements, or gains, need to be captured, packaged, and mass produced so that these gains could be deployed in operational forestry systems. This can be accomplished through seed orchards which is a link between tree breeding and silvicultural activities. Seed orchards are by far the most frequently used sexually reproducing forestry production populations in the world. Apart from the genetic improvement, seed orchards are also used for the production of seed that is well adapted to specific environments. Seed orchards can be categorized according to the generation of breeding or the type of plant material used.

Seed production in spices varies depending on the specific crop and its biological haracteristics. Below is an overview of the seed production methods for each of the spices you’ve mentioned:
1. Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
• Propagation method: Ginger is propagated through rhizomes rather than true seeds. Selected healthy rhizomes are cut into pieces, each with at least one viable bud (eye).
• Planting: The rhizome pieces are planted in well-drained soil with high organic content.
• Maintenance: Regular watering and mulching are essential to maintain soil moisture. Weeding and pest management are also crucial.
• Harvesting: The rhizomes are harvested 8-10 months after planting. Some are reserved for the next planting season.
2. Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
• Propagation method: Similar to ginger, turmeric is propagated using rhizomes.
• Planting: Rhizomes are cut into pieces with at least one bud each and planted in a prepared field.
• Maintenance: Requires consistent soil moisture, so mulching and irrigation are essential. Regular weeding and protection against pests and diseases are necessary.
• Harvesting: Rhizomes are harvested 7-9 months after planting. Selected rhizomes are stored for the next planting season.

Abstract

The drive of planting trees is increasing because the values of trees and forest are being appreciated in all over the world. In most of the countries good quality tree seed is not readily available for a number of reasons especially in forestry sector. Though providing the best conditions for crop growth and health is the foundation of seed quality, the factors that can have the most important effect on seed viability and vigor are harvesting, extraction, cleaning, transportation, and storage because it is easy for seed to become damaged at any of these stages. Ex situ conservation through long-term storage of seed is possible for a significant proportion of higher plants. Long-term seed storage serves as a safe and relatively inexpensive method of plant genetic resources conservation.

Seed testing

No matter how good processed seed may look, the actual value is the number of seedlings it will produce. Testing of seeds is therefore imperative to determine and identify the changes that have occurred from the time of collection until the seeds are sold or sown at one time. The critical step in evaluating a seed lot is the drawing of representative sample. Place all the test samples in a bucket, mix them thoroughly and subdivide to obtain sample size. Improvements in seed processing can only be obtained with quality control. These evaluations should be made in the processing plant and at a seed testing laboratory. The National Tree Seed Laboratories offers a free service to evaluate processing machinery. You need only collect a small sample of seed after it has been processed by each machine and send it to the laboratory. Be sure all the seed comes from the same lot so all samples are related. Each machine must be adjusted for efficient operation, and proper adjustment requires monitoring of the operation.

Farmers have been growing trees for different purposes for thousands of years. Tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant function are called multipurpose trees. These functions may be productive such as producing fuelwood, timber, fibre, fodder, food, medicine, etc. and/or protective such as soil conservation, shade, shelterbelt, microclimate amelioration, land sustainability, biodiversity preservation, etc. All trees are multipurpose; some, however, are more multipurpose than others. Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways.

1. A single tree can provide more than one function. For example, Gliricidia sepium is grown as living fences that provide fuel, fodder and green manure for agricultural crops - all at the same time.

2. Trees of the same species, when managed differently, can provide different functions. For example, Leucaena leucocephala is managed so that some trees will mainly yield wood while others mainly produce leaf fodder.

The selection of the site has great importance for the establishment of a fruit orchard successfully. Establishment of orchard is a long term activity with huge investment. Hence, any mistake committed during site selection, it is difficult to rectify it later. Successful orchard is not only related with yield but also its economic production and efficient disposal of produce. For economic orchard establishment; some of the points which need to be considered, while selection of site. These are as follows.

1. Climate and soil: These are two important natural factors, which decide the success or failure of orchards. Before selection of site, climate and soil requirement for selected fruit crops needs to be studied thoroughly and accordingly site must be selected. On the other hand if a site has already been selected; then fruit crop selection needs to be done as per the existing climate and soil of that selected site.
2. Topography: Slope of site more than 15% makes the land almost unsuitable for cultivation. Land with 4% slope may be kept clean without much loss. Uneven land involves heavy expenditure in leveling. Southern slopes are generally warmer and affect the plant growth in a manner different from the northern slopes. It is due to the difference in quantum of receiving sunlight. Hence, the site with southern slopes may be selected for sun loving plants.

Farmers have been growing trees for different purposes for thousands of years. Tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant function are called multipurpose trees. These functions may be productive such as producing fuelwood, timber, fibre, fodder, food, medicine, etc. and/or protective such as soil conservation, shade, shelterbelt, microclimate amelioration, land sustainability, biodiversity preservation, etc. All trees are multipurpose; some, however, are more multipurpose than others. Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways. 1. A single tree can provide more than one function. For example, Gliricidia sepium is grown as living fences that provide fuel, fodder and green manure for agricultural crops - all at the same time. 2. Trees of the same species, when managed differently, can provide different functions. For example, Leucaena leucocephala is managed so that some trees will mainly yield wood while others mainly produce leaf fodder.

Farmers have been growing trees for different purposes for thousands of years. Tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant function are called multipurpose trees. These functions may be productive such as producing fuelwood, timber, fibre, fodder, food, medicine, etc. and/ or protective such as soil conservation, shade, shelterbelt, microclimate amelioration, land sustainability, biodiversity preservation, etc. All trees are multipurpose; some, however, are more multipurpose than others. Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways.

1. A single tree can provide more than one function. For example, Gliricidia sepium is grown as living fences that provide fuel, fodder and green manure for agricultural crops - all at the same time.
2. Trees of the same species, when managed differently, can provide different functions. For example, Leucaena leucocephala is managed so that some trees will mainly yield wood while others mainly produce leaf fodder.

Farmers can grow multipurpose trees (MPT) in various combinations with other crops, as in agroforestry, in block plantations of trees or in naturally regenerating tree farms. In certain cases, multipurpose trees are grown and managed for only one purpose. For example, Gliricida sepium is grown only to provide shade in coffee plantations. The same species may be planted in some other places and is managed differently for a very different use.

Farmers have been growing trees for different purposes for thousands of years. Tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant function are called multipurpose trees. These functions may be productive such as producing fuelwood, timber, fibre, fodder, food, medicine, etc. and/or protective such as soil conservation, shade, shelterbelt, microclimate amelioration, land sustainability, biodiversity preservation, etc. All trees are multipurpose; some, however, are more multipurpose than others. Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways.

Sexual propagation through seeds is a fundamental method for producing horticultural crops, rootstocks, and planting material. This chapter explains seed structure, quality, viability, dormancy, germination, and factors affecting successful seedling establishment. Different types of seed dormancy and methods for overcoming dormancy are discussed, including scarification, stratification, chemical treatments, temperature management, and appropriate moisture conditions. Seed testing and quality considerations are important for obtaining uniform and healthy plants. The chapter also emphasizes the influence of temperature, oxygen, water, light, and substrate conditions on germination. Understanding seed biology enables students and growers to produce vigorous seedlings and establish reliable nursery and crop-production systems.

Silviculture is the branch of forestry dealing with the establishment, development, care and reproduction of trees. Forestry is anything done in the forest and silviculture is anything done to forests. ‘Silva’ is the Latin word for forest and ‘culture’ for cultivation. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.

The Society of American Foresters defines silviculture as theory and practice of establishment, composition, constitution and growth of forests. Thus, silviculture refers to art and science of raising forest crops, methods of raising tree crops, their growth and aftercare up to the time of final harvesting. In simple words, silviculture is the growing and tending stands of trees. Silviculture is also used to manage forests for wildlife, water, recreation, aesthetics, or any combination of these or other forest uses.