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Coconuts are the fruit of the coconut palm, botanically known as Cocos nucifera, where nucifera means “nut-bearing”. The fruit-bearing palms are native to Malaysia and southern Asia. The coconut has been regarded as ‘man’s most useful tree’, ‘mankind’s greatest provider in the tropics’, ‘one of the nature’s greatest gifts to man’, ‘tree of life’, ‘tree of abundance’, ‘tree of plenty’ and the ‘tree of heaven’ or ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ in India. In Sanskrit Kalpa Vriksha means “tree which gives all that is necessary for living” because nearly all parts of the tree can be used in some manner or another. The Indian state of Kerala is known as the land of coconuts. The name derives from “Kera” (the coconut tree) and “Alam” (place or earth). It has great antiquity in India which is also evident from the fact that the part of Malabar Coast, extending from South Kanara to Cape Comorin, is known as Keralam meaning the land of coconut. The coconut industry is intimately associated with the rural life and occupation of the people of Malabar Coast.

Genus : Cocos 
Species : nucifera L.
Family : Palmae
Chromosome No. : 2n =32

“Tree of heaven, Tree of life, Mankind’s 
                                                  greatest provider in the tropics”    

The generic name Cocos is after Portuguese for monkey which refers to the end of the nut being like a monkey’s head. The genus comprises of beautiful palms and grows to majestic form in its natural habitat usually unarmed trees with pinnatisect leaves. Spadices appear in leaf axis grown widely in almost all the tropical countries. Coconut is often considered as Kalpa Vriksha (Tree of Heaven) for it not only supplies drink, food and shelter but also provides raw material for number of industries.

• Coconut Research Station (CRS)-1916.
• Central Coconut Research Station, Kayangulam, Kerala (CCRS)- 1947.
• Generic name (cocus) is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco’ which means ‘monkey face’.
• Coconut industry employs 10 million people.
• Monolaurin content of coconut oil has anti-HIV property.
• Dwarf coconut is self-pollinated while and tall coconut is cross-pollinated in nature.
• Fully mature nut has 30-40% coir.
• Kerala has the highest share (45%) in coconut production in India: followed by Tamil Nadu (22%) and Karnataka (12%).
• The productivity of (7608 nuts/ha) Indian coconut is the best in the world.
• India ranks no.1 in terms of coconut productivity in the world.
• In India, 9-12 months old seedlings are generally transplanted
• Coconut is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco meaning ‘monkey face’.
• Tall palms: Var. typical (Nar), most commonly cultivated in all the coconut growing areas of the world, the height of 25-30m. Long pre-bearing age of 6-10 years, cross-pollinated.

Plantation Crops

Plantation crops occupy an area of around 4 million hectares which is about 2.8 per cent of the total cropped area. However, the export potential of these crops is high and they account for 27 per cent of total agricultural export. The common plantation crops include coconut, oil palm, areca nut, tea, coffee, cocoa, cashewnut and rubber etc. Various pests infest these crops at different stages and cause economic damage. The crop wise details are as under:

Coconut Coconut,

Cocos nucifera also known as ‘Kalpa Vriksha’, as all the parts of the tree are utilized in one or other way. India is the largest producer of coconut in the world. Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh accounts for 90 per cent production of coconut. The other states namely West Bengal, Odisha ,Gujarat, Assam and Bihar contribute around 10 per cent of the total coconut producción. Pests at different stages of crop growth infest coconut tres, resulting in significant economic damage.

Though the coconut palm is subjected to attack by a number of insect and non insect pests although only 8-10 species of insect pests are considered to be important. Others assume importance, once in a while at isolated locations.

Major pests

The major pests of coconut include the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, black headed caterpillar, root grub and the perianth mite.

1) Rust
Diagnostic Symptoms
• The disease is restricted to leaves although sometimes it can seen on tender shoots and berries.
• The rust pustules appear as small spots, 1-2 mm in diameter.
• In early stages these spots are yellowish becoming orange in color with increase in size.
• On the upper surface, opposite the spots on the lower surface , the color is often brownish.
• In severe attack leaves may dry and wither.
• The berries remain small and fail to ripen.
• Extensive defoliation weakens the trees and results in poor yield, severe die back of twigs, and death of trees (Fig.1).

Coffee is a much sought after beverage and plantation crop grown in about 80 countries across the globe of which over 50 are considered to be major producers. Coffee is also the second largest traded commodity in the world, next to petroleum products and is popularly referred to as “Brown Gold”. Coffee contributes substantially to the national exchequers of the producing countries through export earnings and also generates employment to about 120 million people in production, processing and trading, worldwide. The economic relevance of coffee is underlined by the fact that it generates significant income throughout the supply chain, representing a gross added value of over USD 458 billion annual (Belo Horizonte Declaration, International Coffee Organization, Sept. 2013). The annual revenue of the coffee industry alone is estimated to exceed USD 200 billion. At origin, production of coffee provides livelihood for up to 25 million farmers and their families. (Coffee Development report, ICO, 2019).

Caffeine is a major pharmacologically active compound in coffee and it is a mild central nervous system stimulant. ³. In addition caffeine is added to many popular carbonated drinks and is also a component of a number of pharmacological preparations and over-the-counter medicines. A typical cup of coffee provides approximately 75–100 mg caffeine. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in its ‘Scientific Opinion on the Safety of Caffeine’ concluded that ‘habitual intakes of caffeine up to 400 mg per day do not give rise to safety concerns for non-pregnant adults. They also advised that intakes up to 200 mg per day do not give concern for those who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

India produces two types of coffee i.e. arabica, Coffea arabica and robusta, C. canephora. The former has higher market value than the latter. Coffee is cultivated mainly in the Southern parts of India with Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu being the major coffee producing states. Some of the major pests which limits the cultivation of coffee are described below:

White stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes Cheverolat (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

It is a serious pest of Arabica coffee in India. Alternate host plants include Robusta coffee, teak and Indian olive tree. Eggs are milky white when freshly laid but turns yellow later on. These are elongate, oval in shape and measures 1.25 –1.28 mm in length and 0.46 – 0.5 mm in width. The adult is a dark brown longicorn beetle (16mm long) and bears several white markings on the elytra (Plate 14c). The pale yellow stout full grown grub broader towards the anterior most region, measures 20-30 mm in length.

Coffee is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of insect pests
 
White stem-borer : Xylotrechus quadripes : Cerambycidae

This is one of the important and serious pests of arabica coffee. Other types are also attacked to a slightly lesser extent. The adult is a dark-brown longicorn beetle having several white markings on the elytra and thorax.

Cold chain logistics refers to the technology and processes that ensure the safe transportation of temperature-sensitive goods throughout the supply chain. It is deeply rooted in scientific principles, assessing the relationship between temperature and perishability to maintain product integrity.
Any item categorized as “perishable” typically requires cold chain management. This includes food products such as meat, seafood, and fresh produce, as well as medical supplies and pharmaceuticals.
Although, modern transportation is a relatively recent development, the  practice of moving temperature-sensitive products dates back to the late 1700s when the British used ice to preserve fish. By the late 1800s, ice was widely used to transport perishables. Dairy products were shipped from rural areas to urban markets. Cold chain technology has long been a crucial component of global trade and will continue to play a vital role in the future.
COLD CHAIN LOGISTICS
A cold chain is a specialized supply chain designed for handling perishable and temperature-sensitive goods, commonly referred to as cool cargo. These include fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, and other delicate products. To preserve the quality and integrity of these perishable items, specific lowtemperature conditions must be maintained throughout the supply chain. Certain products require refrigeration; others must be kept frozen, while some demand extreme conditions—often referred to as an ultralow chain or deep freeze. Any failure to maintain the appropriate temperature can result in product spoilage, compromising safety and quality, and ultimately leading to significant financial losses.

Introduction

The cold chain is a meticulously managed series of actions using specialized equipment to ensure products remain within a specific low-temperature range from production to consumption (ASHRAE, 2024; IIR, 2024). This unbroken sequence encompasses refrigerated production, storage, and distribution activities, safeguarding the safety and quality of perishable and thermo-sensitive goods like agricultural commodities (such as fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, etc.), processed foods and pharmaceuticals (Aung and Chang, 2014; Awan, 2023). For climacteric fruits like bananas, custard apples, apples, pears, tomatoes, mangoes, and avocados, cold storage facilitates controlled ripening, extending the time between harvest and consumption. Cold chain management, integral to the overall supply chain, requires expertise in maintaining temperature, air quality, and adherence to regulatory standards. Any disruption in this process can lead to product spoilage and financial implications (FAO, 2019). The management of the cold chain system is crucial for preserving the freshness, taste, and nutritional value of fruits from harvest to consumption (Kader, 2003).

The technique of preserving fruit by the use of low temperature dates from the eighteenth century with the first use of ice house in 1750. Later in 1800s commercial cold storages have come up for the storage of perishables like meat, dairy and fruit products.  The main change took place in the cold store in recent years has been the introduction of multi temperature chambers with humidity control for specific products. Cold preservation can be either refrigeration or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at 4-7^ºC. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18^ºC or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

Coleus, commonly known as Chinese potato, is a minor tuber crop of the tropical regions of India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Africa. It is considered as a native of India , where its cultivation is mostly confined to the southern states. In Kerala, it is commonly known as koorka or cheevakizhangu. In Malaysia it is called ubi kemili, kentang kechil, kembili and kumbili java. It is also known as hausa potato, Sudan-potato, country potato, fra-fra potato, fra-fra-salanga, ratala, pomme de terre du Soudan, hausakartoffel, innala, saluga, tumuku and fabirama. 

Nutritive status
The nutritive status of this crop compares favourably with many of the major tuber crops.  Coleus tuber, with its characteristic  flavour has a special preference among consumers. Compared to other tuber crops, it fetches premium price in the market, although it is known as poor man’s potato. The tubers are used for the preparation of various delicious side dishes. Reliable data on area and production of this crop are not available. Despite the high market price and consumer preference, it is not available throughout the year.

Lace wing bug: Monantha globulifera : Tingidae

Eggs are inserted slantingly into leaves and other tender foliage.  Black spiny nymphs and lace winged adults suck the sap from leaves. Attacked leaves develop yellow patches become brown, shrivel and dry up in severe cases.

Leaf feeder : Helicoverpa armigera : Noctuidae

The female moth lays eggs on tender foliage. Young larva feeds on tender foliage and starts infesting the older ones in later instars. A single caterpillar can destroy many leaves

My first experience with Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. f. (Araceae) was one of personal cultural food use. I recently came to Hawai‘i for my Ph.D. studies, and although I am Vietnamese, it was in Hawai‘i that I began experiencing many Vietnamese foods I never knew as a child growing up in the northeastern U.S. I thank the Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai‘i that became my aunties and uncles from whom I learned a great deal about my roots and the food of Vietnam. I listened to their stories and teachings while we ate together at holiday and community events, reflecting on my childhood, and considering the effects of globalization on the movement of people and plants, I have come to understand the extraordinary significance of that seemingly mundane first experience of eating C. gigantea. In this paper, I describe the botany, ethnobotany,  including a case study of C. gigantea usage in Hawai‘i and the implications for biocultural diversity, and examples for increased utilization of C. gigantea.

Modern fruit and vegetable processing industry is by and large, employing sophisticated machinery and equipment and efficient technique of production. There is still a scope for expansion of the industry by developing and exporting value-added products and on more foreign exchange. The choice of products to be manufactured will depend on the readily availability of raw materials in the area where the Processing Unit is supposed to be set up and the consumer preference in the neighbouring market. Preservation of food has to be established in the developing countries for other reasons also such as to generate both rural and urban employment, improve farmers nutrition by allowing them to consume their own processed fruits and vegetables during the off- season, stimulate agricultural production by obtaining marketable products, reduction of imports and meeting of export demand and to develop new value-added products. The food processing industry has now become more of a necessity than being a luxury. It plays an important role in the conservation and better utilisation of fruits and vegetables. To avoid the glut and utilise the surplus during the season, it is necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for better distribution and processing techniques to preserve them for utilisation in the off season on both large scale and small scale. Fruit and vegetable processing was first started in an organised manner in 1857, mainly to make pickles and chutneys with a view to meeting the export requirement.
Mango Processing Technologies
Mangoes are processed at two stages of maturity. Green fruit is used to make chutney, pickles, curries and dehydrated products. The green fruit should be freshly picked from the tree. Fruit that is bruised, damaged, or that has prematurely fallen to the ground should not be used.

1. Introduction

Nursery raising is as old as agriculture and has many advantages compared to direct seeding in special situations like vegetable cultivation and other high value plants. There are several types of nurseries to cater different crop species like ornamental plants, fruit plants, forest plants and vegetables, although the fundamental concept of all these nurseries is the same. With the advent of drip system, soilless media and plasticulture the nursery system has also become more modern and automated. A nursery is a area or place for growing and looking after young seedlings/plants until they are ready for planting in the main field. 

The Government of India has established boards for important crops. The boards are statutory bodies which help in guiding the production and export. The main objectives for setting up the boards are -

To monitor and promote the export of primary items.

To empower the producers by providing trainings and close guidance.

To conduct research to improve the commodity, e.g. Central Coffee Research Institute, Coir Research Institute etc.

To advise the government on policy matters such as price fixing, fixing quota for export and signing trade agreements.

To promote the commodity by opening offices and outlets in India and abroad.

To showcase the commodity by participating in trade fairs and exhibitions.

1. FRUIT CROPS

1.1 Physiological Disorders

A wide variety of physiological disorders are found in apple fruit, but the susceptibility varies with variety, pre-harvest factors and post harvest conditions. Disorders can be considered in three categories:

1. Disorders that develop only on the tree: Most important is watercore in which intercellular air spaces in the core and cortical tissues become filled with liquid, Presence of watercore in fruit at harvest creates problems in certain varieties such as ‘Delicious’ because fruit with moderate or severe watercore can develop breakdown during storage.
2. Disorders that develop on the tree and during storage: Bitter pit is a disorder characterized by development of discrete pitting of the cortical flesh. Rapid cooling, CA storage and application of postharvest calcium drenches may be able to reduce its occurrence.
3. Disorders that develop during storage: Senescent breakdown disorders, chilling disorders and disorders associated with inappropriate atmospheres during storage are common disorders. The most common disorders associated with temperature and atmospheres are superficial scald, soft scald, low temperature breakdown, brown core, internal browning, low O2 injury, and high CO2 injury.

ABSTRACT

The tissue culture derived black pepper plants of variety Panniyur 4 were compared with conventional propagules for its vegetative growth and field performance. The in vitro derived plants recorded better rooting, survival rate and shoot growth than the conventional propagules. More than 90% of the TC derived plants recovered after primary hardening and 99% recovered after secondary hardening, while it was only 70% in conventional propagules at both the hardening stages. The secondary roots developed in TC derived plants were observed to be far more superior in number and length. The initial growth rate in terms of plant height, number and size of leaves was much better in TC derived plants. The TC derived plants developed numerous bearing shoots - laterals - in the first year of growth and started bearing in the first year itself. The performance was superior to conventional propagules in which production of laterals and bearing begins much later. Thus the performance of TC derived plants was rated as superior to conventional propagules.