eChapters

Introduction
Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food preservation, which allows the preservation of taste, texture, and nutritional quality in foods better than any other methods. The freezing process is a combination of the beneficial effects of low temperatures at which micro-organisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular metabolic reactions are delayed. Freezing is generally referred to as a unit operation in which the temperature of food is reduced below the freezing point and a proportion of water undergoes a change in state to form ice crystals. Immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause a lowering of water activity of the food. Thus, reduction in water activity and use of low temperatures coupled with some pre-treatments like blanching is the basis for food preservation by freezing. Fruits such as strawberries, oranges, raspberries, black currants, and vegetables like green peas, green beans, sweet corn, spinach, carrots, sprouts, and potatoes are examples of commercially frozen fruits and vegetables.
The frozen food market is one of the largest and most dynamic sectors o the food industry. Despite considerable competition between the frozen food industry and other sectors, large quantities of frozen foods are being consumed all over the world. The frozen vegetable industry mostly grew after the development of scientific methods for blanching and processing in the 1940s. The commercialization history of frozen fruits is older than frozen vegetables. The commercial freezing of small fruits and berries began in the eastern part ofthe United States in about 1905.

Introduction
Drying is probably the oldest method of food preservation used for agricultural crops, including food grains, oilseeds, spices, as well as fruit and vegetables. Drying refers to the removal of moisture content from the food to a level at which the activities of food spoilage micro-organisms are inhibited. Therefore, the reduction in water activity of the food as a result of moisture removal is themain principle of preservation by drying. Two commonly used terms for dried foods include low-moisture foods and intermediate moisture foods (IMF). Dried foods or low-moisture foods generally do not contain more than 25% moisture and have a water activity (aw) in the range of 0 to 0.6. Intermediate moisture (IMF) foods on the other hand contain 15- 50% moisture with a water activity (aw) of 0.60 -0.85. Dried grapes (raisins and munacca), apricots, dates, Morchella (Guchhi), bael, chilli, figs, etc. are commercial products prepared by using drying. However, the temperature used for drying is usually insufficient to cause the killing of microorganisms and enzymes, therefore any increase in moisture content during storage due to faulty packaging can also spoil the product. Thus, greater care is required for the packaging and storage of dried products.

A. Tomato and Tomato Products
Tomato though botanically a fruit is generally considered a vegetable because of how it is consumed. Commercial products from tomatoes include juice, puree, paste, ketchup, soup canned and dehydrated tomatoes. Processing of tomato is now practised from home scale level to large scale enterprise. As a semi-finished product, tomato puree is prepared on a small scale while at a large scale, tomato paste has gained commercial significance. Both puree and paste are used for the preparation of different finished products like ketchup, juice, soup etc. The method for preparation of these products is well standardized, however, some modifications concerning recipes are made in the processing plants owing to variations in the quality of the raw material. The methods for the preparation of different tomato products are discussed as under: -
I. Tomato Juice/Pulp
Tomato juice is an unconcentrated product consisting of a liquid with a substantial portion of the pulp, expressed from ripe tomatoes with or without the application of heat and the addition of salt. Tomato pulp/juice is the basic ingredient for the preparation of different tomato-based products such as tomato puree, paste, ketchup etc. Fully ripe tomatoes are used for the preparation of tomato juice/pulp. All green, blemished and overripe fruits should be rejected as they adversely affect the quality of the product. The juice obtained from overripe tomatoes is usually thin and unpleasant. The juice should be deep red in colour with a characteristic taste and flavour. The juice shall have about 0.4% acidity expressed as citric acid. Cane sugar (1%) is added to further improve the taste and flavour of the finished product.

Introduction
Preservation by using common salt, spices and vinegar is a common method for the preparation of pickles, sauce and chutneys. Salt is mostly used as a preservative in pickles in combination with acid. Sodium chloride is used in brines and curing solutions or is applied directly to the food. The quantity of salt necessary to inhibit growth or harm the cells varies with the type of microorganisms. However, the minimum concentration of salt to act as a preservative is about 12%. Salt (sodium chloride) exerts its preservative action
by performing the following functions:
? Causing high osmotic pressure resulting in plasmolysis of the microbial cells.
? Dehydrating food by tying up the moisture thus making it unavailabl for the growth of microorganisms.
? Salt lowers the water activity and thus has adverse effects on microorganisms.
? Affecting the solubility of oxygen in the food and thus inhibiting the growth of aerobic microorganisms.
? Salt ionizes to yield chlorine ions, which is harmful to microorganisms.
? Chlorine in sodium chloride is a good oxidizing agent & is, therefore, toxic to microorganisms.
 

Introduction
Many chemical substances are added to the food for functional purposes and in many cases, these are found to occur naturally in some foods. When these substances are added to the foods, they are known as food additives. An additive is defined as a substance or mixture of substances other than basic food ingredients that are present in a food as a result of any aspect of production, processing or packaging. Additives may be intentional as well as unintentional. Intentional additives are substances deliberately added to perform a specific function and to increase the shelf life of the products while unintentional additives have no intended function in the finished product but become part of that particular product. The food additives having significance in fruit and vegetable preservation and their mode of action are discussed as under:
Objectives of adding an additive
1. To reduce wastage and improve keeping quality e.g., the addition of potassium meta-bisulphite in squashes, benzoate in sauces, sodium propionate in bread and sorbic acids in cheese etc.,
2. To improve and maintain nutritive elements e.g., addition of vitamins for enrichment, addition of vitamin D to milk, addition of iodine to salt etc.
3. To enhance the quality and consumer acceptability of the product e.g., the addition of colouring agents, emulsifiers, thickeners etc.
4. To facilitate the preparation of foods e.g., the addition of acid to beverages, sugar in jams, jellies etc.

Introduction
The addition of sugar in foods acts as a preservative when its concentration is above 66%. It absorbs most of the available water and restricts the availability of moisture required for the growth of microorganisms. Sugar adds value to the product by imparting sweetness as well as body to these products. When sugar is boiled with acid and fruits, it is hydrolysed into glucose and fructose, the degree of inversion depending upon the pH and duration of boiling. Because of the inversion of sucrose, a mixture of sucrose, glucose and fructose is found in products like jam, jelly, marmalade, preserves and candies.
Jams, jellies and marmalades constitute an important class of fruit products preserved by using sugar as the method of preservation. Apple jam, mango jam, pineapple jam, strawberry jam and mixed fruit jam prepared by using the pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. Similarly, guava jelly and orange marmalade are also examples of such products.
A fruit preserve is made from properly matured fruit by cooking it whole or in the form of large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and transparent. A fruit impregnated with cane sugar and glucose, followed by subsequent draining and drying is called a candied fruit (Fruit candy) e.g. petha candy, ginger candy. While candied fruit covered or coated with a thin transparent coating of sugar, which imparts to it a glossy appearance is referred to as a glazed fruit. When candied fruit is coated with sugar crystals either by rolling it in powdered sugar or by allowing the sugar crystals from glucose syrup to deposit on it, it becomes a crystallized fruit (Crystallized Candy). The use of high concentrations of sugar in these products acts as a preservative. Products like Petha candy, aonla preserve, candied citrus peels, ginger candy, ginger in syrup, bael, pineapple and carrot preserve are the commercial products in this category.

Introduction
Fruit juice and beverages comprise naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve (RTS) beverages, carbonated juice drinks, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers, etc. These products are highly refreshing, thirst-quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in several ways, depending on their structure and composition. Soft fruits such as berries or tomatoes can be pressed in a fruit press or pulped by using a juicer attachment to a food processor. Citrus fruits are usually reamed to extract the clear juice. Harder fruits, such as pineapple, are peeled, pulped and pressed to extract the juice. Apple and pear fruits are crushed in a fruit grater and pressed in a hydraulic/ basket press to extract a clear juice. Passion fruit juice is prepared by using a pulper-finisher that separates the skin and seeds from the pulp. The fruits like mango, guava, apricot, peach etc from which the clear juice extraction is difficult are passed through the pulper to make pulp and then the pulp is utilized for preparation of juice, fruit drinks and ready to serve beverages. The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in the market.

Introduction
The term canning refers to a process in which the food is heated in hermetically sealed containers at a specific temperature for a specific time to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health; and microorganisms & enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. The credit for the invention of canning goes to a French confectioner Francois Nicholas Appert, who was awarded a prize in 1809 by the French government for developing a new method of heat preservation of food in a sealed container and after whose name the process of canning has also been named as Appertization. In 1810 Nicholas Appert published the first book on canning entitled “The Art of Preserving Animal and Vegetable Substances for Many Years.” which is the first known work on canning. The work of Appert consists of packing food in glass bottles, closing them with corks, and heating the container in boiling water for several minutes depending upon the type of the food. Although the developed technique was used to preserve different types of food, the actual reason for the prevention of spoilage was known only after the work of Louis Pasteur (1864) who discovered that food spoilage was caused by microorganisms that were destroyed at elevated temperatures and the technique was known as Pasteurization. This understanding helped to form a scientific basis for establishing and revolutionizing the canning industry. Canning of fruits on a commercial scale was introduced in the USA in 1817 by William Underwood. The old phrase ‘necessity is the mother of invention’ suits well for the development of the canning industry during wars. The Civil War in America and the Great European War of 1914 also gave impetus to the development of a canning industry to meet enormous requirements of food for the fighting forces.

Introduction
Processing fruit and vegetables by applying heat is one of the most important methods of preservation as it exerts a positive preservative effect on the foods by destroying spoilage causing micro-organisms, enzymes, insects, parasites, etc. Heat processing also improves the availability of nutrients by improving digestibility, releasing vitamins like bound niacin, destroying anti-nutritional factors like trypsin inhibitor in some legumes including soybean, causing gelatinization of starches, and producing shelf-stable products. However, heating also causes some alteration or destruction of the sensory quality of fresh foods like changes in flavor, color, taste, and texture as a result, heatprocessed foods are perceived to have different sensory qualities than fresh produce.
Preservation by heat (thermal processing) involves heating foods in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at a particular temperature to eliminate/kill/inactivate the microbial pathogens that endanger public health
and micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Most of the raw material used for canning is usually contaminated with different species and strains of bacteria, molds, and yeasts undergoing different stages of growth (lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, vegetative phase, sporulation phase, etc.,). Amongst these, bacterial spores are more difficult to inactivate. Thus, the criteria for heat processing chosen to inactivate the spores are also presumed to be capable of inactivating all other forms of microorganisms. Unlike fruits, most vegetables being low acid or even non-acid require a severe heat treatment to kill most bacteria. It is, therefore, necessary to work out the proper time and temperature combination for each category of food to ensure complete preservation.

Introduction
For setting up a fruit processing plant, the following cost and non-cost factors affecting the plant’s location are considered. Cost factors include raw material cost, transportation cost, cost of land, building and machinery, utilities cost, taxes, and insurance costs. At the same time, non-cost factors consisting of wages, salaries and incentives, market potential, community attitude, cost regulation, quality of life (school, living, recreation for workers, etc.), and environmental impact are taken into consideration. The main objective for the selection of the site for the processing unit is to minimize the sum of all costs. To minimize the cost, one should think not only the today’s costs but about long-term costs as well.
Plant Layout
The advantages of good plant layout are: -
i. Saving in floor space
ii. Increased output
iii. Fewer production delays
iv. Reduced material handling cost
v. Greater utilization of machine and manpower
vi. Easier and better supervision
vii. Less congestion and confusion
viii. Better appearance and more sanitary condition of work areas
ix. Reduced risk to the health and safety of employees

Introduction: Food processing involves different steps from receiving raw material, preparing for product manufacture, and packaging to storage. All these steps are called unit operations. They are broadly categorized as raw
material preparation (receiving, sorting, grading, washing, peeling, blanching, slicing, cutting, dicing etc), processing (canning, drying, pulping, juicing, product manufacture like jam, jelly, preserves, candies, pickling, sauce making, etc.) and post-production handling including packaging and storage. A brief detail about each unit operation is discussed as under:
1. Raw Material Handling
Material handling includes varied operations such as hand or mechanical harvesting on the farm, transportation in trucks or refrigerated vehicles of perishable produce to the market or to the processing plant or to store/godowns. For conveying, a wide variety of mechanical conveyors is used depending on the type of material. Common conveyors used in the processing plant include screw conveyors, bucket conveyors, belt conveyors and vibratory conveyors. Throughout these operations, care is taken to maintain sanitary conditions, minimize bruises and product loss, maintain raw material quality like physical appearance, and vitamin contents, minimize microbial growth and minimize other detrimental changes to the product quality during handling etc. It also includes other unit operations like receiving, cleaning/washing, sorting, grading, peeling, halving, slicing, blanching etc for preparation of fruit and vegetables for processing.

Introduction
Food preservation refers to an art or science which deals with the process of prevention of decay, deterioration or spoilage of food commodity to allow it to be stored in a safe condition for future use. All foods gradually undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time immediately they are harvested or manufactured. Some commodities spoil rapidly, while others can keep longer but for limited periods. The basic purposes of food preservation are:
1. Extension of shelf life of foods thus increasing the supply
2. Ensuring the availability of seasonal foods throughout the year
3. Adding variety to the diet
4. Saving time by reducing preparation time and energy
5. Stabilizing farm prices and prices of food
6. Improving the nutritional qualities The food spoilage can be caused due to growth and activity of micro-organisms, insects or rodents, action of enzymes, chemical reactions and physical changes that takes place during processing, drying, or freezing etc. Classification of Food Depending upon the type of spoilage and level of perishability, the foods are classified into three broad categories:

Introduction
Food Pipe Line refers to a post-harvest system that deals with ensuring the delivery of a crop/commodity from the time and place of harvest to the time and place of consumption, with minimum loss, maximum efficiency, and maximum returns to all concerned including the grower, processors, and consumer. The term ‘system’ represents a dynamic, complex aggregate of logically interconnected functions or operations within a particular sphere of activity. The term pipeline refers to the functional succession of various operations but tends to ignore their complex interactions.
Stages of the post-harvest system
The food commodities broadly undergo different stages/operations of postharvest systems right from harvest to consumption. However, the applicability of different stages varies with the type of crop. Different unit operations involved in the post-harvest system of food commodities are as under:
1. Harvesting
2. Threshing (food grains, pulses and oilseeds)
3. Drying (food grains, pulses and oilseeds)
4. Collection, Sorting, grading, packaging (Horticultural Crops)
5. Transportation and distribution
6. Storage (Godowns, cold stores, CA stores)
7. Processing

Introduction
Fruits and vegetables are an important part of the human diet as they provide the necessary nutrition, essential minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, dietary fiber, etc., required for maintaining proper health. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China. Comparison of area under horticultural crops during 2011-12 and 2021-22 indicate substantial improvement from 18.5 million ha to 27.6 million ha with a simultaneous increase in production from 215.04 million MT to about 333.25 million MT respectively in the country within a span of just one decade (Table 1.1). The credit for this spectacular growth in area and production goes to the sustained efforts of the central and state governments for the launch of several farmers’/ growers’ welfare schemes viz., National Horticulture Mission (NHM), Horticulture Mission for Northeast and Himalayan states (HMNEH), Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH); R&D support by the ICAR and State Agriculture & Horticulture Universities, extension agencies/Krishi Vigyan Kendra and proactive farmers and orchardists. However, the increase in production has still not kept pace with the improvement in infrastructure for post-harvest handling, management, processing, and value addition. Various studies still indicate that under normal conditions more than 15-20% of the produce goes to waste from production to consumption which in monetar terms accounts for huge economic losses. A recent study sponsored by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries Government of India and conducted by NABARD Consultancy Services has indicated that about 19.33 million MT worth Rs 58013.71 Crores of fruit & vegetables goes to waste annually as postharvest loss (4.87-15.05%) in various channels from harvesting to consumption (NABCONS,2022). The condition becomes even worse when there is a glut in the market, road blockades, or seasonal vagaries, and farmers are forced to leave their produce in the field itself without harvesting or dispose it at throwaway prices. Such a situation can, however, be controlled by diverting thisproduce to processing for conversion into a number of value-added products for its later use in human consumption. Thus, processing and preservation of horticultural crops have now become a necessity rather than a luxury.

Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most valuable and popular fruit crops all over the world (Mohsen, 2021). In India, grapes are mainly grown for table, raisin and wine making. Major grape producing countries are China, Italy, France, Spain, USA, Turkey, and India while, major wine producing countries are France, Italy, Spain, and USA (OIV, 2024). According to an estimate, grapevine is spread on an area of 1.71 lakh ha and production was 37.81 lakh MT in the country during the year 2023-24 (NHB, 2024). India ranks first in world for grape productivity and 7th for grape production during 2023-24 (APEDA, 2024).
Traditionally, grapes are grown on their own roots. However, due to deteriorating soil and water conditions, the use of rootstocks has become essential in the tropical climate of India to maintain production (Singh and Sharma, 2005). The grape industry which is important to produce wine and table grapes is facing  significant challenges due to changing climatic conditions. Climate change has led to increased temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events, all of which can adversely affect grapevine health and productivity. To combat, the role of grape rootstocks has become increasingly vital for maintaining sustainable viticulture. Grape rootstocks are the belowgraft joint part of the grapevine onto which the scion variety is grafted. These rootstocks are typically derived from species of Vitis genus other than Vitis vinifera, the primary species used for grape production.

India, internationally recognized as the principal producer, consumer and exporter of spices globally, is often referred to as the spice bowl of the world. A total of 75 spices out of 109 are cultivated in the country, among which
pepper, cardamom, chillies, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, and fenugreek are of significant importance. The approximate export of spices during 2021- 22 was 15,31,154 MT valued at 30,576.44 crore (US $4,102.29 million)
compared to 17,58,985 MT valued at 30,973.32 crore (US $ 4,178.80 million) during the previous financial year. Indian spices are exported to more than 180 destinations, with the leading importers being USA, China, Bangladesh, Thailand, UAE, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, UK, Indonesia, and Germany. The key spice-producing states of India include Himachal Pradesh (ginger), Haryana (garlic), Karnataka (pepper, ginger, cardamom (small), chilli, turmeric and garlic), Orissa (ginger, chilli, turmeric, and garlic), Kerala (pepper, chilli, turmeric, nutmeg, mace, and clove) and Rajasthan (coriander, chilli, cumin, garlic, fenugreek, fennel, and ajwain).
Seed Spices in Rajasthan Economy
Of the 75 spices grown in India, 20 are classified as seed spices, where the economically important part is the seed.

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench), known in many English-speaking countries as lady’s finger or gumbo, belongs to family Malvaceae. The geographical origin of okra is disputed and supposed to be South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins (Anonymous, 20013a). Its proposed parents are reported to be in South Asian; therefore, it is believed that perhaps it is of South Asian origin. However, because of greater diversity in okra in West African region, it is considered to be originated in West Africa. Masters (1875) proposed that it originated in India.
Okra is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions, including the Middle East, Africa, Brazil, Turkey and southern states of USA (IBPGR, 1990; Jideani and Adetula, 1993; Acquistucci and Francisci, 2002). In tropics it is cultivated during summer and in the warmer parts of the temperate regions. It is an annual or perennial plant, growing up to 2 m height. The leaves are 10–20 cm long and broad, palmately lobed with 5-7 lobes. The flowers are 4–8 cm in diameter, with five petals which are generally yellow, but often white with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The fruit is a capsule which may attain length up to 18 cm containing numerous round seeds. Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage (proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported “diploid” form of okra).

Vegetable crops belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae are known as cucurbits. These include 950 species in over 90 genera, mainly distributed in the tropics and subtropics (Schaefer and Renner, 2011). Enormous diversity of cucurbit genetic resources has evolved in past centuries to cater the nutritional requirements of people in different geographical and climatic regions. A large number of cucurbitaceous vegetables coming from different centres of origin are cultivated worldwide (Table 1). However, these crops are challenged by several biotic and abiotic stresses. Cultivated varieties are constrained by market demands, the necessity for climatic adaptations, domestication bottlenecks, and in most cases, limited capacity for interspecific hybridization, creating narrow genetic bases for crop improvement. Genetic resources are the building block for any crop improvement programme and includes landraces, traditional varieties, wild, weedy and other related species constituting primary, secondary and tertiary gene pools. They are valuable sources of important genetic traits needed for developing resilient and climate smart crop varieties and therefore, important for food security. The success and pace of the development depends on the efficient use of plant genetic resources. Wild relatives are incredible genetic resources carrying several desirable attributes like nutritional quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses etc. Most of the crop wild relatives of cultivated crops across the world are not receiving adequate attention for their effective utilization in breeding programs. It is therefore, of utmost priority to protect them in the wild, through in-situ conservation, where they can continue to evolve and develop these useful adaptations. ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR) is the nodal agency for the management of national wealth of vegetable genetic resources speciallyworking for collections, characterization, identification and documentation of new germplasm. Besides, it also bears the responsibility for conservation of the germplasm for future through sustainable use. The Vegetable germplasm is being conserved both under in-situ and ex-situ genebanks. This chapter highlights the status of Cucurbit genetic resources and procedures to access the germplasm by various stakeholders for research use.
 

Introduction
Vegetable crops are highly susceptible to biotic stresses indicated by disease causing micro-organism (fungi, bacteria, virus and phytoplasma). Indiscriminate use of chemicals for the control of diseases, insect pest have
several disadvantages, particularly increased cost of cultivation, residual toxicity in food chain and development of resistance against pathogen. Management of diseases involves use of resistant varieties and integration of cultural and chemical control measures. Of the biotic stresses much of the breeding efforts have been directed towards developing resistance against diseases. In fact, breeding for resistance, has been one of the most important objective of vegetable breeder in the last half of the century. Genes that contribute to pathogen tolerance/resistance can be obtained from local germplasm resources, or through exotic lines, wild species or genera, or lines from other breedingprograms. In the biotechnological approaches for vegetable breeding also,  most of the achievement has been to generate transgenic plants resistance to disease. Often breeding for resistance has assumed greater importance in a number of vegetable crops.
Major Diseases of Tomato
Early blight: The casual organism is Alternaria solani. The symptoms appears as small, black spots with enlarged and concentric rings in a bull’s eye pattern in the center of the leaves. Tissue surrounding the spots may turn yellow. On fruits, dark brown concentric rings are seen that affects the market quality.

Globally, India ranked second in vegetable production and contributed 15.8 and 14% to global vegetable area and production, respectively. The production of vegetables in India is estimated to be 212.91 million tonnes in the year 2022-23 compared to 209.14 million tonnes in the year 2021-22. India ranked first in production of okra in the world (73% of world production) and second in brinjal (27.55%), cabbage (13%) and tomato (11%). The major vegetable growing states in India are West Bengal (14.1%), Uttar Pradesh (11.4%), Bihar (9.3%), Madhya Pradesh (8.0%) and Gujarat (7.1%). Vegetables are especially important crops for farmers with small holdings because an appreciably higher income per hectare can be generated by growing vegetables than from conventional staple crops (Genova et al, 2006). However, vegetables are generally considered more vulnerable than staple crops to stressful environmental conditions including extremes of temperatures, drought, salinity, alkalinity, water logging, mineral nutrient excesses and deficiency (Chinnusamy et al, 2005). These environmental stresses are likely to be exacerbated by the prevalent climatic changes in many parts of the world.
Among environmental factors, soil salinity stress is one of the main factor reducing production and productivity of vegetables in arid and semi-arid regions where irrigation water has excessive salt and annual rainfall is low. In India, about 6.73 million ha of land (~2.1% area of the country) is salt affected, out of which 2.96 million ha is saline and 3.77 million ha is sodic (Arora & Sharma 2017). About 75% of salt-affected areas exist in four states, i.e., Gujarat, Maharashtra, West Bengal, and Rajasthan (Mandal et al., 2018).