eChapters

Drying and dehydration are interrelated terms. Drying generally refers to the method of removal of moisture from the food under natural conditions such as sunlight and wind for example open sun drying, shade drying etc. Whereas, dehydration refers to a process of removal of moisture by application of artificial heat under controlled conditions of temperature and airflow. In this case single layer of fruit and vegetables, either whole or sliced after primary pretreatments is spread on trays which are placed inside the dehydrator or in the open sun for drying. In the dehydrator, the initial temperature is generally kept at 43oC which is then gradually increased to 66-71oC for fruits and 60- 66oC for vegetables. Dried grapes (raisins and monucca), apricots, dates, apple rings/cubes, Morchella (Guchhi), bael, aonla, fig, green peas, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, garlic etc are commercial products prepared by using drying.
Procedure for drying: Drying generally involves three stages: pre-drying treatments or pre-treatments, drying of commodity and post-drying operations such as handling, packaging and storage. The flow sheet for drying of fruit and vegetables is shown in Figure 1 and details of pretreatments for drying fruits and vegetables are shown in Table 1&2 respectively.

Introduction

Agriculture is the most important sector of Indian Economy. The agriculture sector accounts for 18 per cent of India’s gross domestic product (GDP) and provides employment to 50 per cent of the countries workforce. India has emerged as the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. Formerly agriculture was more dependent on nature and all the operations were carried out manually, however new technologies have been developed to increase the production and productivity of crops (Rangbhal, 2018).

Concept: Operations conducted before and after harvest are essential components of the system for producing high-quality seeds. If enough care is not taken in the initial stage, there most likely won’t be any resources left to get high-quality seed. Like this, carefully produced, high-quality seed may lose a significant percentage of its worth if post-harvest management protocols are not adhered to. Its quality is highly correlated with soundness, fullness, and homogeneity of physical characteristics (size, shape, density, colour, and appendages), in addition to mechanical planting’s simplicity and improved crop establishment. Improving the seed that has been gathered and getting it ready for secure storage till needed are accomplished through the effective and efficient process of seed processing. To increase the quality of the seed lot, the goal of seed processing must be to optimize the physical properties of the seed and the constituents of the harvested seed mass. The three main steps in seed processing are conditioning, grading, and applying protectants or enriching with nutrients. These steps are completed in compliance with established protocols and standards (McDonald and Copeland 1997; Agrawal 1996; Jorgensen and Stevens, 2004). The distinct qualities of the crops and the surroundings are taken into consideration while adjusting the machines and operations.

Abstract

Designer foods are known by various names like medical foods, fortified foods, nutritional foods, nutraceutical foods, pharma foods etc. These foods are nutritious, maintain health and prevent diseases. Such foods must possess characteristics like modified composition; limit the presence of certain potentially harmful components and include certain desirable ingredients either naturally or by intentional addition. The term designer food emerged some years ago to describe foods tailored to specific concentration and proportion of nutrients that are important to health. These are designed and produced by using different approaches. The term ‘designer foods’ is subjected to change based on nutritional labelling regulations, new developments, consumer perceptions and expectations. Grain improvement through biotechnology emphasizes crop upgrading with a specific challenge to manipulate the endosperm composition in order to improve its intrinsic properties for diet and health. Breeding fruits with higher bioactive compounds for disease resistance and improved composition have stimulated interest in the nutraceutical and processing aspects of the fruits Nutritive and genetic interventions to alter milk composition for specific health and processing opportunities are gaining importance in dairy biotechnology. Designer eggs having modified fat provide choices with different nutritional benefits. The options suggested for designer meat and meat products are through production practices, post-harvest procedures and reformulation techniques. All these features of designer foods will be presented with suitable examples.

Wood apple (Feronialimonia) commonly known as Bael in various Indian sub-continent languages is the most under-utilised fruit despite of its aromatic flavor, high nutritional components and important medicinal values. Reason may be due to challenge in harnessing the pulp from the fruit. It is considered under seasonal fruit but it has long duration of shelf-life as compared to other fruits.The physic-chemical characteristics revealed that it has high shell weight of 55.67% as compared to pulp weight of 43.77% (Devi et al. 2018).

Materials Required

Sample, reagents, beakers, conical flasks, pestle and mortar, funnels, volumetric flasks, pipettes, weighing balance, spectrophotometer/colorimeter.

Reagents

    1.    2% Metaphosphoric Acid Solution: Weigh 20 g of HPO₃ and dilute to 1 litre in water or 4% oxalic acid.
    2.    Dye Solution: Dissolve 100 mg of 2, 6 Dichlorophenol-indophenol dye (Phenolindo-2,6- dichlorophenol sodium salt, AR, C₁₂H₆Cl₂NNaO₂ 2-3H₂O) and 84 mg of sodium bicarbonate (sodium hydrogen carbonate AR, NaHCO₃) in hot (85-95ºC) distilled water. Cool and make up the vol 100 ml. Filter and dilute 25 ml of the dye to 500 ml with distilled water. 
    3.    Standard Ascorbic Acid: Weigh 50 mg of ascorbic acid (AR) and make up to 50 ml with 2% metaphosphoric acid or 4% Oxalic acid solution (1000 ppm i.e. 1000 µg/ml). Dilute 4 ml of this solution to 100 ml with 2% HPO₃ or 4% oxalic acid. (1ml = 40 µg ascorbic acid).

Materials Required

Spectrophotometer, ethyl alcohol, beakers, pestle and mortar etc. 

Procedure

    1.     Preparation of sample extracts
        a.    Liquids : Centrifuge the juice at 5000 rpm for 4-5 min., and collect the supernatant. For liquid samples prepare a 40 % solution in ethyl alcohol. To 30 ml of the sample add 45 ml of ethyl alcohol and mix thoroughly. Filter through Watman 
No. 1 paper.

        b.    Semi-solid samples: To 15 g of blended sample add 15 ml of distilled water and 45 ml of ethyl alcohol. Mix thoroughly and filter through Watman No. 1 paper.
        c.    Dried products: Extract known quantity of sample (4-6 g) with 100 ml of 60% ethyl alcohol for 12 hrs and filter through Watman No. 1 filter paper.
    2.     Measure the absorbance of the samples at 440 nm for non-enzymatic browning and 400 or 420 nm for measurement of colour.
    3.     Prepare 60% ethyl alcohol solution as blank. Add 30 ml of distilled water to 45 ml of absolute alcohol and use as blank.

Materials Required

Soxhlet apparatus, petroleum ether, water bath, sample, grinder, weighing balance, filter paper, threads.

Procedure

    1.    Take the given sample and weigh it (A)
    2.    Dry the samples in an oven till there is no more weight loss and weight it (B)
    3.    Grind the sample into powder.
    4.    Place a weighed quantity of sample in filter paper, wrap the paper and tie it tightly with a thread so that no powder comes out of the paper during extraction. 
    5.    Pour approximately 100 ml of anhydrous ether into the bottom flask. Turn the heaters on. Set the temperature at about 40ºC.  
    6.    The ether will evaporate and circulate through the sample and again will come back to the flask. 
    7.    Repeat the process for about 16 – 18 hrs for complete extraction. 
    8.    Remove the sample and evaporate most of the ether from the mixture of crude fat and ether obtained during extraction.
    9.    Evaporate excess of ether from the crude fat sample by evaporation on a water bath. Evaporate till it is free from the fumes of ether. Record the weight (C).

Materials Required

Sample, Liebig condenser, digestion flasks (700-750 ml cap), conical flasks, filtering cloth (thick linen cloth for clear filtration) reagents, muffle furnace, crucibles.

Reagents

    1.    0.255 N Sulphuric acid solution : Dilute 2.5 g (1.36 ml) of concentrated H₂SO₄ to 200 ml. Ensure correct concentration by titration.
    2.    0.313 N Sodium hydroxide solution: 2.504 g NaOH / 200 ml water nearly free from sodium carbonate. Ensure correct concentration by titration.
    3.    Asbestos Chips: gooch grade, medium fibre, acid wash and ignited
    4.    10% Potassium sulphate (K₂SO₄) solution: Dissolve 10 g of Potassium Sulphate (AR) in water and make up to 100 ml.

The quantity of space available for product storage is referred to as warehouse capacity. Understanding the distinction between theoretical working capacity and storage capacity can be aided by warehouse capacity. In warehouses and other storage facilities, space is perhaps the most valuable resource for online retailers. By making the most of their warehouse space, businesses can significantly increase the quantity of goods they can store there. Having more things in storage at once can save them money on transportation and other expenses.
It also makes it easier for the warehouse KPI staff to access the products, which helps them process orders faster and deliver the goods to customers sooner. Because space can be limited in a warehouse setting, warehouse managers and business owners should take the time to assess how much space they have and how well they’re using it.
STEP TO CALCULATE WAREHOUSE STORAGE CAPACITY
Understanding your warehouse’s current capacity is the first step in
determining how to increase it. This brief guide will show you how to calculate a
warehouse’s capacity in feet:
• Calculate the total square footage of your warehouse complex. Let’s assume that it is 10,000 square feet in this case.
• Determine the total amount of space devoted to non-storage purposes, such as offices, loading areas, restrooms, and break rooms. Assume for the moment that this is equivalent to 2,000 square feet.
• Subtract the total square feet of non-storage space from the total square feet of your warehouse to determine the usable space. The following is the equation:
USABLE SPACE-TOTAL SQUARE FEET – NON-STORAGE SPACE SQUARE FEET
Determine the total usable storage space by identifying the maximum stack height or clear height. This should account for the lowest-hanging overhead

Materials Required

Sample, hot air oven, weighing balance, crucibles, muffle furnace, lead pencil / marker etc.

Procedure

    1.    After following the procedure for the determination of moisture (in silica crucibles as given in previous chapter) the same sample can be used for the determination of ash. 
    2.    Heat the dried sample in the silica crucibles over a heater/hot plate/burner to burn the carbon.
    3.    When it becomes completely black and no more smoke comes out of the sample, shift them to muffle furnace.
    4.    After heating the samples in muffle furnace, all the marks of pen / pencil/ marker are lost, so one would not be able to identify the samples and error of weights may occur. Therefore, it is advised to place the samples in the furnace in one or two rows and draw the diagram on a piece of paper for identification purpose.

Materials Required

Fruit, vegetable or product sample, hot air oven, weighing balance, crucibles, petri plates, lead pencil / marker etc.

Procedure

    1.    Take crucibles  or petri plates and record the tare weight of crucibles / petri plates (C) and mark them
    2.    Cut the sample into small and thin pieces (if solid)
    3.    Put the sample into the crucibles / petri plates in three replications
    4.    Record the weight of crucibles + sample (C + S)
    5.    Put in hot air oven for drying at 70 + 2ºC.
    6.    Record the loss in weight after every 1-2 hrs till it becomes constant
    7.    Calculate the moisture and total solids. 

Introduction Diet and dietary component are proved to be the first line of intervention in prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases by many studies (R. Vrolix and R.P. Mensink, 2010). Hence the interest has grown in development of functional food product in recent years which provides not only basic nutrients but also has health promoting and diseases preventing properties (Rozek et al., 2010). The Functional Food Center (FFC) defines “functional food” as natural or processed foods that contain known or unknown biologically-active compounds; the foods, as defined, effective, and non-toxic amounts, provide a clinically proven and documented health benefit for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic disease (Martirosyan et al., 2015). Fiber is classified into two separate groups i.e. soluble which forms gel like substance when comes in contact with water and insoluble is a solid form that does not break down when exposed to water (web 4). Soluble fibers increase total transit time by delaying gastric emptying and also slow glucose absorption, which includes pectins, β-glucans, galactomannan gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses (J.H.Cummings and A.M.Stephen 2007). The American Society for Nutrition stated that cereal fibers are modestly associated with a reduced risk of type II diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease (Cho Qi, Fahey Jr & Klurfield, 2013).

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn 
Determination of porosity of tin plate.

Introduction

Porosity in tinplate refers to the presence of tiny holes or pores in the tin coating on steel sheets used for making tin cans. These pores can expose the underlying steel to the contents of the can, potentially leading to corrosion and contamination of the food product. Ensuring minimal porosity is crucial for maintaining the integrity and safety of food packaging. Tinplate is produced by coating a thin layer of tin onto a steel sheet. This can be done through hot dipping or electroplating. The goal is to create a uniform and continuous tin layer that acts as a protective barrier against corrosion. During the coating process, imperfections such as pores or pinholes can form in the tin layer. These imperfections can occur due to variations in the coating thickness, impurities in the tin, or mechanical damage during handling and processing.When a tinplate can with porosity is filled with food, the contents can come into direct contact with the exposed steel through the pores.The acidic or basic nature of certain food products can accelerate the corrosion of the exposed steel, leading to the formation of rust.This corrosion can compromise the structural integrity of the can and potentially contaminate the food with rust particles or harmful by-products of the corrosion process. The primary function of the tin coating is to act as a physical barrier that prevents the food from contacting the steel. A continuous and defect-free tin layer ensures effective protection.Tin also provides cathodic protection to the steel. In the presence of an electrolyte (e.g., acidic food), tin acts as the sacrificial anode, corroding preferentially to the steel. However, this mechanism is only effective if the tin layer is relatively thick and the porosity is minimal.

Materials Required

Sample, reagents, beakers, conical flasks, pestle and mortar, funnels, volumetric flasks, pipettes, hot plate, weighing balance, spectrophotometer/colorimeter.

Reagents

    1.    0.1 N NaOH: Dissolve 4 g NaOH (AR) crystals in sufficient water to make up the final volume 1 Litre.
    2.    1 % Phenolphthalein: Dissolve 1 g in 100 ml water. Readymade indicator solutions are more commonly used.
    3.    Alkaline copper Tartarate
        a.    Dissolve 12.5 g anhydrous sodium carbonate, 10 g sodium bicarbonate, 12.5 g potassium sodium tartarate and 100 g anhydrous sodium sulphate in about 400 ml of distilled water and make up the final volume to 500 ml.
        b.    Dissolve 15 g copper sulphate in distilled water. Add one drop of sulphuric acid and make up to 100 ml in distilled water.
    4.    Always prepare fresh Alkaline Copper Tartarate reagent by mixing 96 ml of sol. a. and 4 ml of sol. b. and before use.
    5.     Arsenomolybdate Reagent: Dissolve 5.0 g ammonium molybdate (AR) in 90 ml of distilled water. Add about 5.0 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid and mix well. Add 600 mg of disodium hydrogen arsenate dissolved in 50 ml water. Mix well and incubate the prepared reagent at 37ºC for 24-48 hr or 55ºC for 30  min. with constant stirring.

Materials Required

Ostwald viscometer, stop watch, sample, distilled water, thermometer.

Procedure

    a.    Take sample and distilled water. Record their temperatures (they should be same for correct estimation). If the temperatures are not same bring both to a specific temperature say 20ºC or the room temperature.
    b.    Clean and dry the Ostwald viscometer properly before use
    c.    Fill the ostwald viscometer with distilled water and record the time taken (T₁) for the a known volume of water to flow through the orifice.
    d.    Empty the viscometer and dry it
    e.    Fill the ostwald viscometer with sample juice or liquid and record the time taken (T₂) for the a known volume of sample to flow through the orifice of the same viscometer.
    f.    Calculate the relative viscosity using the following formula

Materials Required

Sensory scoring card, products, pen/ pencil for coding, plain water.

Procedure

    1.    Assign codes to the samples i.e. a, b, c, …… or 1, 2, 3, ….. etc.
    2.    Keep the coded samples randomly (eg. c, f, a, b, d, e) in a row for evaluation
    3.    Start the evaluation of samples one by one. 
    4.    Evaluator should rank the samples on the basis of intensity of a single sensory attribute according to his / her preference.
    5.    Compute the means on the basis of the evaluation of different evaluators (replications).
    6.    List the samples in increasing or decreasing order of preference.

Materials Required

Sensory scoring card, products, pen/pencil for coding, plain water.

Procedure

    1.    Take the given two samples
    2.    Make them three by duplicating/repeating either one of the two
    3.    Assign codes to the samples eg. AAB, ABA, ABB,  BAB etc.
    4.    Ask the evaluators to evaluate the samples for any differences between the 3 on the given Specimen Evaluation Card.
    5.    Find out how many of the evaluators have chosen the odd sample correctly (say it is 16 out of 20 evaluators).
    6.    Now find out the degree of difference in the samples indicated by the evaluators who correctly found the odd sample (Say it is much as per 3, moderate as per 8 and slight as per 5 out of the 16 correct evaluators.).
    7.    Find out how many of the correct evaluators preferred A sample and how many the B sample (say 11 preferred A sample and 5 B sample).
    8.    After going through Annexure II you may conclude that the two samples differed significantly from each other as 16 out of 20 evaluators found the odd sample correct. But, the preference was not significant as it should have been at least 13 out of 16 judges indicating same preference so as to make it significant. So, it may be concluded that the two samples differ significantly but both are acceptable.

Materials Required

Sensory scoring card, products, pen/ pencil for coding, plain water

Procedure

    1.    Assign codes to the samples i.e. a, b, c, …… or 1, 2, 3, ….. etc.
    2.    Keep the coded samples randomly (eg. c, f, a, b, d, e) in a row for evaluation
    3.    Start the evaluation of samples for various sensory attributes one by one. 
    4.    Evaluator should rinse his/ her mouth after each sample so as to avoid overlapping of taste, flavour etc.
    5.    Assign marks from 1-9 based on pleasurable and un pleasurable experiences.
    6.    Compute the means for a particular attribute on the basis of the evaluation of different evaluators (replications).
    7.    Find out the best sample on the basis of highest average scores obtained.

Materials Required

Specific gravity bottles, weighing balance, sample, pipettes, thermometer, distilled water 

Procedure

    1.    Take the sample and distilled water record their temperatures (they should be same for correct estimation). If the temperatures are not same bring both to 20ºC or the room temperature.
    2.    Clean and dry the specific gravity bottles properly before use.
    3.    Record the tare weight of the specific gravity bottle (T) alongwith the stopper.
    4.    Carefully fill the specific gravity bottle with distilled water up to the brim and then place the stopper tightly so as to exclude extra water. 
    5.    Dry the exteriors of the bottle with a tissue paper
    6.    Record the weight of (bottle + water) say A
    7.    Similarly, fill the same specific gravity bottle with test sample and record the weight (bottle + sample) say B
    8.    Calculate the specific gravity of solution using the following formula

Materials Required

Sample, 0.1 N NaOH solution, 1% phenolphthalein indicator solution, beakers, conical flasks, pestle and mortar, funnels, volumetric flasks, pipettes, pH meter, shaker.

Reagents

    1.    0.1 N NaOH: Dissolve 4 g NaOH (AR) crystals in sufficient water to make up the final vol. 1 litre.

    2.    1 % Phenolphthalein: Dissolve 1 g in 100 ml water. Readymade indicator solutions are more commonly used.  

Procedure

Preparation of sample: For fresh fruits and vegetables, prepare a well blended, uniform pulp in a pestle and mortar and for processed products, take out a representative sample and blend it well so that it becomes uniformly soluble when added to water. Filter through a fine muslin cloth or coarse filter paper if felt necessary. The liquid samples can be taken directly for estimation.
    1.    Take out a known weight / vol. (say 20 g) of sample in a beaker (in 3 replicates).
    2.    Make it to a known vol. (say 100 ml) with added distilled water.
    3.    Take 10 ml of this aliquot in a conical flask.
    4.    Add 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator into the aliquot.
    5.    Titrate against 0.1 N solution of NaOH till light pink coloured end point is obtained.
    6.    For coloured products, i.e. tomato products where judgment of light pink colour is difficult, titration may be done over a shaker, and digital pH meter may be used for continuously measuring pH of aliquot which would show a steady increase with more and more addition of 0.1 N NaOH. Titre value may be recorded when pH of 8.3 is obtained.
    7.    Record the titre value and calculate the acidity of the sample as per the given formula.

Materials Required

Fruit/ sample, refractometers, thermometers, standard solutions of known TSS, temperature correction Tables.

Procedure

    1.    Calibrate refractometers of all ranges to be used.
    2.    The TSS of the juices/pulps/fresh fruits can be measured with the one having lowest range i.e. 0-32º Brix while, for measuring the TSS of concentrates, syrups, squashes, jams, jellies etc. refractometers of the higher ranges are made use of.
    3.    Put a drop of material on to the glass surface of refrectrometer’s prism, cover gently with the lid and observe the TSS against light.
    4.    Measure the temperature of the liquid which is being evaluated and apply temperature corrections (Annexure III).
    5.    Record the corrected value as the TSS of the sample.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
The water absorption of packaging material by Cobb method.
Introduction

The water absorptive capacity, or Cobb value, is defined as the mass of water absorbed in a specific time by 1 square meter of paper, board, or corrugated f iberboard under a head of 1 cm of water. To determine this value, conditioned test pieces are weighed before and after being exposed to water under specified conditions. The excess water is removed using blotting paper and a brass roller of defined dimensions and weight. The test piece is weighed immediately before and after exposure to water for a specified duration on one surface. The increase in mass due to water absorption is expressed in grams per square meter (g/m²).

The Cobb value defines the water absorbency of paper as the amount of water absorbed by one side of a unit area of paper or board placed horizontally under a 1 cm water head within a given time.

Principle

This method, developed by Cobb, measures the amount of water absorbed by paper, paperboard, or corrugated fiberboard over a specified period under standardized conditions. It is applicable to paper or board that is not fully penetrated by water during the selected absorption time.

Objective

After performing this experiment, you will be able to learn:

Water vapour transmission rate of packaging material

Introduction

Moisture Vapor Transmission Rate (MVTR), also known as Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR), measures the rate at which water vapor passes through a material. MVTR is crucial in various industries where moisture control is vital. For example, moisture-sensitive foods and pharmaceuticals are packaged using materials with controlled MVTR to ensure quality, safety, and shelf life. In the textile industry, MVTR serves as a measure of breathability, enhancing comfort for outdoor clothing. In the building materials industry, managing moisture barrier properties in architectural components helps maintain appropriate moisture levels in the internal spaces of buildings. Various techniques are used to measure MVTR, ranging from gravimetric methods that assess moisture gain or loss by mass to advanced instrumental techniques capable of measuring extremely low transmission rates. It's important to note that special care must be taken when measuring porous substances like fabrics, as some techniques may not be suitable.

Developing a nutraceutical or functional food is becoming mandatory as looking at the current nutritional status of the population over the world. Nutraceutical foods are proven to cause several health benefits to people. Hence the basic aim behind developing the nutraceutical chocolate bar was to fulfill the nutritional demands and provide some additional benefits to people. The product mainly contains two key ingredients that are, Drumstick (Morings oleifera) which has the most qualities to call a Superfood” and Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) which is referred to as “Mother of all grains”.

Introduction Sea food processing is one of the major contributors in food processing sector. The purpose of seafood processing is to prevent the wastage and prolong the shelf life of highly perishable commodity. It also increases the economy of the country through exports (Gopal et al., 2014). India produce 9.6 million MT of sea food during the every year and is one of the largest fish producers in the world. 23% of marine products are processed currently in India (Sathianandan, 2017). Pasteurized crab meat is one type of processed marine commodity exported from India. Globally, the pasteurized blue crab and swimming crabs are the major contributors to the economic wellbeing of the seafood industry. In India, pasteurized crab meat industries are significantly contributing to the export markets. Among the crab export, 70-80% is exported as pasteurized crab meat (Jebadurai17, 2014).

Materials required
Material : Wheat Flour (1000g), Shortening (350 g), Fine Sugar (400 g), Sodium bicarbonate (10 g), Dextrose solution (100 ml) i.e 25 g Dextrose hydrate in 500 ml water, Distilled water (50 ml), salt (8 g).
Equipments: Mixer, rolling pin, Tray, cookies cutter, baking oven etc.
Principle: Cookies are made from soft wheat are having high sugar and fat content. They contain relatively low moisture content and have fairy high shelf life. Biscuits are similar name used in Europe and UK. Cookies are chemically leavened. Sugar and shortening are creamed to form dough with flour and leavening agents. When cookies dough enters the oven, the fat starts melting and sugar is dissolved which allow the cookies to spread as a function of gravity. The leavening agents expand it in all direction and structure is stabilized with high temperature prevailing in the oven.

Principle
Jam: Jam is a product made by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to reasonable consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. Apple, pear, sapota, apricot, carrot etc. are used for preparation of fruit jam. Jam contains 0.5-0.6 % acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40 %.
Total soluble solids (TSS)
The TSS value is defined as the amount of sugar and soluble minerals present in fruits and vegetables. A refractometer is based on the principle of total refraction. This is done by placing a few drops of distilled water on the prism in the specimen chamber of the back the cover. The distilled water reading should be zero. If it is not so, it should be set to zero with the scale correction knob. The specimen chamber is now cleaned with muslin cloth or tissue paper. For determining the TSS, a drop of sample (jam, juice and syrup, etc.) is placed on the prism and the percentage of dry substance in it read directly on scale in refractometer.

Principle
Jelly: Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear, strained solution of pectin containing fruit extract, free from pulp, after the addition of sugar and acid. A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff, and should have the original flavour of the fruit. It should be of attractive colour and keep its shape when removed from the mould. Pectin (0.5-1.0%), acid (0.5-0.75%), sugar (65%), and water are the four essential ingredients. Pectin test and determination of end-point of jelly formation are very important for the quality of the jelly. Some recipes for jelly making are given below:

Principle
Nectar: The term ‘fruit nectar’ is used to designate pulpy fruit juice blended with sugar syrup and citric acid to produce a ready-to-drink beverage. In this fruit beverage contains at least 20% juice/pulp and 15% total soluble solid and also 0.3% acid. It is not diluted before serving. Many fruit juices are either too acidic or strongly flavoured; these cannot be pleasant without dilution of blending or both. These strong, tart juices are delicious after dilution with thin syrup or blend juice e.g. apricot, guava and plum juice. Out of the tropical fruits, nectars made from banana, guava, mango and papaya are quite popular. The product is sealed in container or glass bottles and processed by heat to prevent spoilage. The fruit ingredients may be puree, pulp, juice or concentrated equivalent to 40 percent of the finished products. Apples, cherries and pineapples are used in combination with others fruits. The sweeteners are sugar, invert sugar syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup and the optional ingredients are lemon juice, citric, malic and fumaric acids as acidifier and ascorbic acid as antioxidants (150 ppm) can be used.

Principle
Squash: A fruit juice squash essentially consists of juice containing moderate quantity of fruit pulp to which cane sugar is added for sweetening e.g. orange squash, plum squash. This is a type of fruit beverage containing at least 25 percent fruit juice/pulp and 40-50 percent total soluble solids, commercially. It also contains about 1.0 percent acid and 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm sodium benzoate. It is diluted before serving.
Mango, orange and pineapple are used for making squash commercially. It can also be prepared from lemon, lime, guava, pear, apricot, muskmelon, papaya etc., using potassium metabisulphate (KMS) as preservative, or from jamun, passion fruit, peach, phalsa, mulberry, raspberry, straw berry, grapefruit etc., with sodium benzoate as preservative.

The proposal presented takes into account the rationale of using natural source of immunity, discarding any preservatives or artificial flavors and additives. Collection of fresh produce followed by processing of fruits and vegetables, in the form of a veggie mix slushy which is ready to eat, ready to cook and easy to digest, through the use of sustainable retorting technology. The proposal takes into account the major problems regarding food for the elder like lack of digestion, in sufficient appetite, lack of value in terms of vitamins and minerals of food, also targeting the notion of feeling sick by taking multi vitamin and immunity tablets on a regular basis.

Principle
Pickle is an edible product preserved and flavoured in a solution of common salt and vinegar. Spices and oil are also added. They add to palatability of a meal, aid in digestion and are good appetizers too. Pickles are prepared from fruit and vegetables like cauliflower, reddish, carrot, green chili, turnip, cabbage, onion, mango, jackfruit, aonla and lemon etc. Commercial preservation of many pickle relied upon conversion of fermentable carbohydrates by lactic acid bacteria to organic acids during bulk storage and/or the addition of sufficient amount of sugar, vinegar and other ingredients to the fully cured and packed products to preclude any microbial growth. Organic acids, oil, salt and spices all have antimicrobial properties at suitable concentration especially in combination which preserves the pickles. Pickles in brine such as or after fermentation however, need some amount of preservative or pasteurization to prevent the spoilage.

Materials required
Material : Wheat Flour (550 g), Pearl millet Flour (50 g), Ragi Flour (50 g), Finger millet Flour (50 g), Barley Flour (50 g), Sorghum Flour (50 g), Foxtel Millet Flour (50 g), Maize Flour (50 g), Oat Flour (50 g), Besan (50 g) Shortening (350 g), Fine Sugar (400 g), Sodium bicarbonate (10 g), Distilled water (50 ml), salt (8 g). Equipments: Mixer, rolling pin, Tray, cookies cutter, baking oven etc. Principle: Cookies are made from soft wheat are having high sugar and fat content. They contain relatively low moisture content and have fairy high shelf life. Biscuits are similar name used in Europe and UK. Cookies are chemically leavened. Sugar and shortening are creamed to form dough with flour and leavening agents. When cookies dough enters the oven, the fat starts melting and sugar is dissolved which allow the cookies to spread as a function of gravity. The leavening agents expand it in all direction and structure is stabilized with high temperature prevailing in the oven.

Objective: Development of Potato chips
Potato is a perishable commodity and cannot be preserved longer in fresh form. Although for some time potatoes can be preserved by low temperature storage but this low temperature storage results in many undesirable biochemical changes in the quality of the potatoes. Another alternative for the preservation of potatoes is to conversion in the shelf stable value-added processed products. Further, value-addition and processing of potato will also ensure the availability of wholesome, safe, nutritious, and acceptable food to consumers throughout the year along with simultaneous reduction in post-harvest losses and profit to the farmers for their produce. Potatoes are processed into a great variety of products, including cooked potatoes, par-fried potato strips, French fries, potato chips, potato starch, potato granules, potato flakes and dehydrated diced potatoes and others. Globally, only two potato-based snack foods i.e., chips/ wafers and French-fried potato are the main value-added products of potato, accounting for more than 42% of the potato based processed products. Such type of fried products is loved for convenience and their premium taste, flavour, and texture. With the technological advancements, now potato processing is highly industrialized and market driven. Like other processed products, the finished product quality of potato based value-added products severely depends upon the quality of raw potatoes used. Therefore, the major challenge in potato processing is to fulfil the tuber quality requirements specifically, tuber morphology, reducing sugar (=0.1%) and dry matter content (=20%). Alternatively, we can infer that all type of potato is not suitable for processing. The crispy texture of potato chips is one of the most important quality indicators of the finished product, apart from colour, odour and flavour. Potato chips texture is often described in terms of crispness, hardness and crunchiness. This crispy/crunchy character is an important sensory characteristic on which consumers base their appreciation.

Objective: Development of RTS beverage from seasonal fruits.
Material required
Fruit, juicer-mixer-grinder, preservatives, sugar, refractometer, pan and knife etc.
Principle
Ready To Serve(RTS): This a type of fruit beverage which contain at least 10% fruit juice and 10% total soluble solid besides about 0.3% acid. This is not diluted before serving.
Before undertaking the preparation of beverage, it is necessary to know techniques of extraction of pulp/juice from various fruits used for RTS.

Procedure
1. Mix the dough with ingredients I. Keep it for fermentation till breaks easily without stretching.
2. Put the sponge to mixer. Add salt, sugar, flour and optional ingredients and mix. In last, add shortening. The dough should be soft and very smooth.
3. Let the dough relax for about 30 min. cut pieces of dough weighing 100 g/450g.
4. Mould in along oblong shape and place in baking pans.
5. Proof the moulded dough to a desired height.
6. Bake at 210oC to a golden colour.
7. Cool the loaves overnight.
8. Cut the rusk of desired thickness. Arrange on baking sheets and toast at 190oC till these are crisp and golden brown in colour.
9. Cool and packaged.

Objective: Development of Salted Banana chips.
Banana is the second most significant natural product harvest of India close to mango. It is accessible round the year and due as it would prefer, nutritive and the rape tic worth. It is most loved product of all classes of individuals. It is a rich wellspring of sugar and nutrients especially nutrient B. Banana assists with diminishing the danger of heart illnesses. Banana is a famous organic product because of its low cost and high nutritive worth. Banana contains about 20% sugar and sensible measure of Vitamins A, B and C. This is considered to be a rich source producing food. It is consumed in several forms and among many worth added arrangements, Banana Chips is viewed as the main thing. Seared banana chips are typically delivered from under-ready banana cuts southern style in sunflower oil or coconut oil. These chips are dry (like potato chips), contain about 4% water (table), and can be salted, spiced, glossed over or jaggery covered. Some of the time banana enhancing is added.

Objective: Development of Sugarcane Vinegar.
Principle: Sugarcane is one of the main crops worldwide, and it has an important impact on environmental issues. Sugarcane is used in daily routine life in many ways like as vinegar, jiggery, juices etc. In India sugarcane crop is best cultivated in the west U.P. Sugarcane original vinegar drink with high nutritional quality was produced from fresh sugarcane juice using the yeast culture and acetic acid bacteria by fermentation techniques such as submerged alcoholic fermentation followed by acetic fermentation at room temperature. Refined sugarcane is the primary product of sugarcane juice, during its processing; various other valuable products are also obtained in an unrefined form such as brown sugar, molasses, jaggery and vinegar. Sugarcane juice is widely used in the treatment of jaundice, hemorrhage, dysuria, and other urinary disease. Nowadays sugarcane vinegar is also used in Indian kitchens commonly in pickles, salads, etc. Vinegar is extremely useful for human health including antimicrobial activity, blood pressure reduction, antioxidant activity, reduction in the effects of diabetes, and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Vinegar can be made from any carbohydrate source, amylaceous, or sugary substrate through two successive fermentations: alcoholic fermentation, which is carried out by means of yeasts, and acetic fermentation, with acetic bacteria as the protagonist.

1. INTRODUCTION

India is blessed with all types of vegetation because of the diversified climatic and physiographic factors like tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine. Due to its wide ranging environmental regimes and diverse biological communities, it is one of the world’s 12 “Mega diversity” nations. Out of nearly 425 families of flowering plants in the world, 328 families with 21,000 species are found in India. Further, in India about 20.64 % area is under forest where various species of trees are found, depending upon the climatic conditions.

There are about 29 species of pine which produce edible nuts and utilized at least by indigenous tribal culture in the world. Most of these nut bearing pines are haploxilon (soft) pines, although several species are of diploxilon (hard) pine group. Spain is the largest producer of Pinus pinea and China is the largest producer and exporter of Pinus koriences and Pinus sibrica nuts. Some of the famous edible pine nut species are listed in Table 1. Chilgoza (P. gerardiana Wall.), commonly known as ‘chilgoza’ or ‘Neoza’ is a member of genus Pinus that maintains a very unique position of being an integral part of the vibrant, but fragile ecosystems of the great Himalayas in the Indian sub-continent. The chilgoza pine is the only pine which is of immense social forestry importance. The earning for the bread and butter of most of tribals in HP is from the chilgoza nuts. Further, it also forms an important part of their diet as well as an item essential for some social obligations. Tribals are still adopting the age old practices for chilgoza nut extraction and further their selling to the agents at throw away prices during peak season of nuts.

Abstract

There are enormous food processing industries comprising of grains and oilseeds milling, fruits and vegetables processing, spice grinding and other food processing units in India. Also, there are many seed processing companies in the country, which are engaged in the processing and production of good quality seeds of different crops besides National Seeds Corporation and State Seed Corporations. All industries are using different type of machinery and equipment like cleaner, grader, expeller, milling machines, polishers, dehusking machines, size reduction equipment, different type of grinders, separators, treatment machinery, mixers, pulverizes etc. Besides this equipment, material-handling equipment like conveyor (belt, chain or screw type), elevators, holding bins and other handling equipment are also frequently used in the processing plants. To meet the above requirement many firms are also involved in the manufacturing of these equipment and machinery. Since, most of the seed processing equipment, dhal milling plants, material handling equipment are manufactured by the unorganized sector and hence equipment and machinery fabricated by them are not of very good quality. However, Bureau of Indian Standards has formulated the codes of manufacturing for these equipment and machinery. Seed processing equipment manufactured in India are generally copy of imported processing equipment. The manufacturers do not use materials of good quality. Framework of the machines is very poor. These machines are not also tested for their efficiency, 

Principle
Chutney and sauces are important food products prepared both in homes as well as commercially in India. They improve the digestion and are good appetizers. Tomatoes are a good source of vitamin C. Fresh tomatoes are very refreshing and appetizing but can not be stored for a long period. Often they are sold at distress prices during the peak harvest season and nearly 25% of the produce is spoiled due to mishandling and improper processing facilities. Such losses can be reduced by converting fresh tomatoes in to delicious product like paste, puree, juice, ketchup/sauce and powder. Generally, the sugar content in ketchup/sauce varies from 10-26%. The salt content of the product should be 1.3 to 3.4%. Good quality vinegar is essential for the preparation of high quality sauce/ketch up. It should contain 5.0-5.5% acetic acid or glacial acetic acid (100% acetic acid) and should be added when the product has thickened sufficiently. Tomato sauce/ketchup generally contains 1.25-1.50% acetic acid. In order to increase the viscosity and prevent the separation of pulp from clear juice, pectin can be added to extent of 0.1-0.2% pectin by weight of the finished product. Add 0.025% sodium benzoate as preservative to the product before bottling and then pasteurize.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wild pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is one of those fruits which has got a great economic importance. The name “pomegranate”is derived from Latin pomum (apple) and granatus (seeded) which has influenced the common name for pomegranate in many languages (like in German Granatapfel, seeded apple). It has widely been cultivated throughout India and drier parts of South-East Asia, Malaysia, the East Indies and tropical Africa. The most important growing countries of pomegranate are are Egypt, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Iraq, India, Mayamar and Saudi Arabia. In India, it grows in the vast tract of the hill slopes of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. One of the important centers of wild pomegranate, in Himachal Pradesh is Darlaghat, located about 50 Km from Shimla. The fruit provides substantial income to the farmers particularly where it is found growing wild such as in Mandi, Kullu, Sirmour, Solan, Shimla, and Chamba districts of Himachal Pradesh. It is found very common and gregarious in drier and sub-marginal land of mid hill regions of outer Himalayas at an elevation of 900-1800 m above mean sea level (a.m.s.l). Wild pomegranate is considered as one of the commercial fruits of Himachal Pradesh in the form of dried arils popularly known as “Anardana”. Besides Anardana, other value added products can also be prepared from this fruit as detailed in this chapter.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food additives have been used for centuries in food processing practices such as smoking and salting of meat. Prior to the advent of refrigeration, food grown in the summer had to be preserved for the winter. Salt, sugar, and vinegar were commonly used preservatives. Additives serve many roles and their common uses includes maintaining product consistency and palatability, providing leavening or controlling pH, enhancing flavour and imparting colour. A food additive can be defined in many ways. The Codex Alimentarius Commission, which develops international regulatory guidelines for food additives, provides the following definition of a food additive:

"Any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself, and not normally used as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food results, or may reasonably be expected to result, (directly or indirectly), in it or its by-products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such food. The term does not include contaminants or substances added to food for maintaining or improving nutritional qualities".

F.A.O and W.H.O in 1956 defines food additives as non-nutritive substances added intentionally to food, generally in small quantities, to improve its appearance, flavour, or storage properties. The definition did not include vitamins and minerals. Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FASSI) in 2011 defines food additives “as any substances which is added to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation or treatment of such food and affects the characteristics of such food, but does” not include contaminats or any substance(s) added to the food maintaining or improving the nutritional values. Food additives are those added intentionally to foods and are not naturally a part of a food but can be a part of food unintentionally.

Introduction

Oils and fats are utilized both for their food applications as well as for industrial purpose. As a food product, oils and fats are consumed in a variety of forms such as shortening, ghee, butter, margarine, cooking oil, salad oil, etc. Other uses include their usage in the form of lubricants, greases, soaps, cosmetics, paints as well as animal feed and biofuels. Among the Asian countries, Indonesia leads as the prime producer with more than fifty percent of the total palm oil production in the world. As a second-best producer of oils and fats, China was the major manufacturer of rapeseed as well as soybean oil in year of 2018. In general, Asian countries contributed to more than fifty percent of the total fat and oil manufacturing in the world in 2018 (Kushairi et al., 2018). Even though fats and oils are primarily utilized for food applications, there has been an increased interest in their industrial utility for the manufacture of biofuels. Fats manufactured from various animal sources like tallow or lard also contribute to a considerable quantity and compete with vegetable oils for the production of biofuels.

The resources for producing oils and fats are diverse depending on their end use, yet they are obtained from two major sources: animal sources and plant sources. Oils and fats are used as starting materials for the preparation of shortenings, margarines, and other tailored products that further act as functional ingredients in food products prepared by food processors, restaurants, and in home. They have been used for food and other variety of applications since the prehistoric times, due to their easy availability. For example, fatty tissues from animals liberate free-floating fats on being boiled, whereas oil can be pressed out from oil fruits and oilseeds.

The role of dietary oils and fats in human nutrition is also one of the important areas of interest. Over the time, oil and fat industry has provided significant contributions toward nutritional improvement of various products. With the growing concern linked between cardiovascular diseases and consumption of oil and fat products, low-calorie variants of different foods, free or low in cholesterol are also available now. Excessive fat consumption among the populations of developed countries and consequences of obesity has led to the development of reduced-fat and very-low-fat variants of foods.

Introduction

Fiber is that part of plant food which is not digested when eaten. Since it is not absorbed into the body, dietary fiber is not a nutrient. Nevertheless, fiber is a very important component of a healthy diet. Fiber, also called “roughage” helps prevent constipation, hemorrhoids and diverticular disease. Some types of fiber have a cholesterol-lowering effect, which could lead to reduced risk of heart disease.

Dietary fiber has been defined as plant cell wall material resistant to the intestinal secretions of the host. This definition gives the appearance of precision and allows gravimetric and chemical measurements. However, a proportion of other non-fibre dietary constituents (e.g, retrograded starch, protein, and fat) pass along the gut, without absorption or metabolism, to the caecum. Chemical analysis or quantitative measurements of the fibre content of specific diets do not allow prediction of their biological action. The physiological effects of dietary fibre depend predominantly on physical properties unrelated in any simple or direct way to chemical composition. Quantitative measurement of dietary fibre does not allow for diverse effects on nutrient absorption, sterol metabolism, fermentation in the colon, and stool weight. We still do not know whether to restrict the definition of “dietary fibre” to non-starch polysaccharides or to include related materials such as resistant starch, lignin, and the complex assemblies typical of plant tissues, where polysaccharides occur in close association with other molecules. An alternative to defining fibre in terms of chemical composition would be to develop measurements of physical properties relevant to physiological action in the intestine. This approach could be extended to other polymeric constituents, in particular proteins (ingested and secreted) and mucous glycoproteins.

Polysaccharides are the main constituents of dietary fibre and show a wide spectrum of physical, properties that reflect the nature and extent of intermolecular association. Dietary fibre can be likened to a water-laden hydrated mass passing along the gut. Physical properties that influence function are a combination of the rheological and colligative properties of the water-soluble fibre components, the surface characteristics of the water-insoluble components, and the network properties of the swollen hydrated components. Such features include viscosity, water holding, cation exchange, organic acid adsorption, gel filtration, and particle size distribution.

Abstract

The concept of functional foods has received significant media attention and, as a result, interest has focused on the need for research into the non- nutrient constituents of food plants. This has enabled market penetration of functional foods containing increased amounts of bioactive food compounds or physiologically active nutrients and non-nutrients within food that impart proven health benefits. Functional foods can take many forms. Some may be conventional foods with bioactive components that can now be identified and linked to positive health outcomes. Some may be fortified or enhanced foods, specifically created to reduce disease risk for a certain group of people. Numerous observational studies have shown that omega-3 fatty acids enriched diets are associated with a reduction of cardiovascular mortality, heart attack and sudden death. In several studies, a higher fish intake has been associated with decreased incidence of coronary artery disease (CAD) and cardiovascular mortality. A trial revealed that fish oil supplementation of 130 mg/kg of body weight each day decreased the number of stiff joints, duration of morning stiffness, pain and global arthritis activity. Many supplements contain active ingredients that have strong biological effects in the body. The bioavailability of nutrients within a given food is governed by the composition and microstructure of the food, commonly referred to as the food matrix. More specifically, numerous studies investigating the development of functional foods have shown that the interactions between nutrients and non-nutrients within the food matrix can be synergistic, additive, or neutralizing in nature. The preventive and curative effects of the functional foods on health concludes it to be integral components of established public health programs to reduce the risk of specific diseases.

Agricultural professionals continuously confront challenges in preventing pest infestations and managing temperature and moisture levels to protect grains from decay. They recognize the critical importance of safeguarding these valuable resources and rely on quick, dependable solutions to tackle common grain storage issues. Let’s take a closer look at the challenges faced by growers, handlers, transporters, and processors in long-term grain storage, and the strategies they employ to overcome these obstacles.
ABIOTIC FACTORS
There are also abiotic factors, which are non-living elements, that influence the quality of stored grains. Factors such as air, humidity, and temperature play a significant role in grain storage. If these factors are imbalanced in terms of quantity or quality, they can have a detrimental effect on the stored grains.
SPACE CONSTRAINTS
As crop yields continue to rise, farmers face the challenge of finding enough storage space to accommodate the increased harvest. Often, last year’s grain still fills storage bins when the new crop arrives, prompting the agricultural industry to seek innovative storage solutions.
The most straightforward solution to a shortage of storage space is to build additional bins. However, this option is not always feasible for smaller farms or processing facilities with limited budgets. As a result, many choose to repurpose existing barns or store surplus grain outdoors in piles. Unfortunately, this outdoor storage method comes with its own set of challenges, including faster spoilage and pest issues. To counter these problems, some facilities use temporary storage options such as grain bagging systems or outdoor storage tents. Mechanical ventilation systems are also employed to ensure proper aeration, reducing the risk of spoilage before the grain is moved to its final destination.