eChapters

1.1. Introduction

• Horticulture contributes 30% GDP from 11.73% of its arable land area.

• Fruits and vegetables

? Second largest producer

? Immense significance to man.

? Given place of honour on being offered to God at every festival and also mentioned in epics like Mahabharata, Ramayana and writings of Sushrutha and Charaka.

? Rich source of carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres

? Provide variety in taste, interest and aesthetic appeal.

• Benefits kidney functions, prevention of cancer and cardiac disorders through contribution of ascorbic acid, p-carotene and non-starch polysaccharides besides biochemical constituents like phenols, flavonoids and alkaloids.

• Very high post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables (20-40%).

21.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to tropical Asia and China

• Widely growing in tropics of Africa, Asia and Malaysia.

• In India, it is grown in forests of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Bihar.

• Due to raising demand in South East Asia, plant is endangered particularly in Tamil Nadu.

21.2. Economic importance

• Madhunashini - Important medicinal climber acclaimed for its anti-diabetic properties.

• Preparations - Profound actions on the modulating taste suppressing sweet taste sensations.

22.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of herbs

• Native to India

• Wide distribution covering entire Indian sub-continent up to 1800m in Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Ocimum tenuiflorum (Ocimum sanctum) - Holy basil

• Ocimum basilicum (2n=48) - Culinary or ornamental basil

22.2. Economic importance

• Have a religious attachment and grown in shrines and homes as an aromatic perennial shrub.

• Part of routine worship and scientific background as antimicrobial and antiviral properties and purifies the air.

20.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Indo-Malayan region

• Grown in all southern states and extends northwards to Odisha and Bengal.

• In India, it is cultivated in gardens and nurseries as live fence in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.

20.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Wood, leaves, pods and seeds.

• Sappan wood or East Indian red wood - Multipurpose tree, yielding valuable natural dyes with medicinal properties.

• Source of commercial redwood or Brazil wood.

• Used for inlaying work, cabinet making, violin bows and for walking sticks

• Stem produces gum, tannin or dye stuff

19.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Eurasia and introduced in America, Australia and South Africa.

• Grown throughout dry parts of India

19.2. Economic importance

• Whole plant - Useful for rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting

• Used in cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, emollient

• As an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

19.3. Climate

• Well in tropical and subtropical climate

12.1. Tea

12.1.1. Algal leaf spot: Cephaleuros virescens

Symptoms

• Leaves develop lesions that are roughly circular, raised and purple to reddish brown.

Management

• Removal of infected portions and spraying of Bordeaux mixture

• Improving soil nutrient status by application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

12.1.2. Brown blight, grey blight: Colletotrichum sp., Pestalotiopsis sp.

5.1. Aonla

• Fruit of this deciduous tree found mainly in India.

• Aonla is rich in natural vitamin C.

• Aonla has cooling, diuretic and laxative properties.

• It helps in cleansing the mouth, and strengthens teeth and bones.

• It increases the red blood cell count and helps to promote good health.

• It also has an antioxidant properties.

• The dried aonla fruit is useful in the treatment of hemorrhage, diarrhoea, and dysentery.

• Aonla has laxative properties and therefore, useful in the treatment of constipation and piles.

• It also has antibacterial properties and helps in preventing infections and healing ulcers.

• It also helps in preventing skin infections.

• Aonla has cell rejuvenating properties and therefore, used in maintaining good health of skin and hair.

• Aonla helps to keep the hair glossy and shining.

4.1. Coconut

• Coconut water is a refreshing drinks which also hygienic and nutritive.

• White flesh is a calorie rich extensively used for cookery in South India.

• From grated wet coconut kernel, good quality oil as well as protein and carbohydrate can be extracted to prepare coconut honey.

• Undesirable flavour changes in desiccated coconut are due to oxidative rancidity of the oil.

• Residual cake after the oil extraction is used as cattle food.

• Dried coconut meat is known as copra and is the source of coconut oil, which is used in enormous quantities for making fats for baking and confectionery.

• An important product used in the chocolate and confectionery industry is desiccated coconut.

• Nut is removed from hard shell and thin brown rind pared off.

• Aromatic food substances, which enhance flavour are classified into spices.

• Spices are usually dried roots, barks and seeds used whole or crushed, powdered.

• Spices add a glorious touch to food with its flavour and fragrance.

• Spices add flavour, colour to food and make the food palatable.

• Stimulates salivation and acid secretion of digestive enzymes like amylase.

• Has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant properties.

• Reduces cholesterol levels useful in preventing heart diseases.

• Kerala is considered as the land of spices.

3.1. Different types of spices and their use

• All spice or Pimento

? A small berry, size of the pea dried to a dark brown colour.

? Flavouring component is a volatile oil present at 3 -4% levels containing eugenol and other closely related phenols.

2.1. Tomato

2.1.1. Tomato paste

Steps in tomato paste preparation

Step 1 : Tomato juice (strained)
Cooking to desired consistency (Kettle/vacuum pan)

Step 2 : Judging the end point for puree or paste (Tomato solids by hand refractometer or reduction in volume by measuring stick)

Step 3 : Filling hot into bottles or canes (82-88°C)

Step 4 : Pasteurization in boiling water for 20 minutes

Step 5 : Cooling

Step 6 : Storage at ambient temperature

Step 7 : Packing and storage

2.1.2. Tomato sauce / ketchup

• It is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and vinegar, with or without onion and garlic and contains not less than 12 per cent tomato solids and 25 per cent total solids.

1.1. Mango

1.1.1. Mango squash

Step 1 : Selection of fruits

Step 2 : Washing

Step 3 : Pulping

Step 4 : Preparation of syrup (sugar + water + acid, heating just to dissolve)

Step 5 : Straining

Step 6 : Mixing with juice

Step 7 : Addition of preservative (0.6 g KMS (Potassium metabisulfite)/litre squash)

Step 8 : Bottling

Step 9 : Capping

Step 10 : Storage

1.1.2. Mango RTS (ready-to-serve)

Step 1 : Fruit (pulp/juice)

Step 2 : Mixing with strained juice

10.1. Preservation through canning

• Process of sealing food stuffs hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long storage

• In 1804, Appert in France invented this process.

• Also known as appertizing.

• Saddington in England - First to describe a method of canning of foods in 1807.

• In 1810, Peter Durand obtained first British Patent on canning of foods in tin containers.

• In 1817, William Underwood introduced canning of fruits on commercial scale in U.S.A.

• Fruits and vegetables are canned in season when raw material is available in surplus.

• Canned products are sold in off season for better returns to grower.

10.1.1. Principles and process of canning

9.1. Principles of food preservation by heat

• Pasteurization temperature at below 100°C

• Heating at about 100°C

• Sterilization temperature at above 100°C

9.1.1. Pasteurization

• Heat treatment kills part, but not all microorganisms present and temperature below 100°C.

• Heating by means of steam, hot water, dry heat or electric current and cooled after heat treatment.

• Surviving microorganisms are inhibited by low temperature or some other preservative method, if spoilage prevented.

• Preservative methods used to supplement pasteurization include

? Refrigeration, e.g. milk

? Keeping out microorganisms usually by packaging the product in a sealed container

8.1. Packaging

• One of the important steps in long and complicated j oumey from grower to consumer.

• Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins, and palletized containers are convenient containers for handling, transporting, and marketing fresh produces.

8.2. Packaging points

• Recyclability / Biodegradability

• Variety

• Sales appeal

• Shelflife

• Containment

• Protection

• Identification

? To provide information on produce name, brand, size, grade, variety, net weight, count, grower, shipper, and country of origin.

? Universal Product Codes (UPC or bar codes) is included as part of labelling.

? UPC is used in food industry which consists of a ten digit machine readable code.

7.1. Storage

• Helpful in checking market glut, providing wide selection of fruits, vegetables and flowers to consumer through most part of year i.e. especially during off season.

• Helps in orderly marketing and increases profit to producers/farmers.

• Done to maintain freshness, quality, reduce spoilage and extend their usefulness.

• Huge post-harvest losses due to lack of proper storage facilities.

• Basic principle of storage - to reduce rate of physiological processes like respiration, transpiration, ripening and other biochemical changes.

• Proper storage aims to control disease infection and preserve best quality for consumers.

• Chemical used to extend the shelf life and quality of produce

• Different steps involved in post-harvest processing of horticultural produces are depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Flow chart on post-harvest processing of horticultural produces.

6.1. Pre sorting

• Done to eliminate injured, decayed and unwanted produce before cooling and handling.

6.2. Pre cooling

• Removal of field heat after harvest at 32°C for 1 h.

6.2.1. Advantages

• Reduces rate of respiration and ripening, moisture, bruise damage during transits, production of ethylene and growth of spoilage organisms

• Eases load on cooling system (Refrigeration) of transport or storage chamber

4.1. Fruit ripening

• Genetically programmed stage of development overlapping with senescence.

• Ripe when attains full flavour and aroma

• Optimum ripening condition for fruits• Conditions for controlled ripening of fruits at RH of 85-90%

5.1.1. Climacteric fruits

• Apple, apricot, avocado, banana, ber, cherimoya, fig, guava, kiwifruit, mango, melons, pear, peach, plum, persimmon, papaya, tomato, sapota and passion fruit

5.1.2. Non climacteric fruits

• Carambola, cherries, citrus, grape, litchi, loquat, olive, pineapple, pomegranate and strawberry

Difference between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits

4.1. Quality of post-harvest product

• Post-harvest quality - market, edible, transport, table, nutritional, internal and appearance qualities

• Consumers consider good quality in relation to colour, flavour and nutrition.

• Final manifestation of inter relation between commodity and its environment.

• Genetic characteristics and physiological status of commodity determine typical post-harvest behaviour and quality of the produce

• Temperature, RH, water potential, light, cultural practices and pest management techniques determine the quality.

4.2. Pre-harvest factors

4.2.1. Related to plants

• Crops: Quality varies from crop to crop E.g. jackfruit, bael, potato, onion, pumpkin, garlic etc. having good quality in relation to shelf life

3.1. Maturity

• During process of maturation, fruit receives regular supply of food material from plant.

• When mature, abscission or corky layer forms at stern end stops inflow.

• Afterwards, fruit depends on own reserves, carbohydrates dehydrated and sugars accumulate until sugar acid ratio form.

• In addition, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop.

• Stage of maturity at the time of picking influence storage life and quality of fruit

• Fruits harvested over mature or full ripe are easily susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and storage life reduction.

• Necessary to pick up fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant transportation and maximum storage life.

• Principles of harvest maturity

? Harvested commodity should have its peak acceptable quality when it reaches the consumer.

? Produce should develop an acceptable flavour or appearance.

? Produce should have optimum size and shape required by the market.

2.1. Structure of fruits and vegetables

2.1.1. Fruit

• Fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries (Fig. 1). Plant product with aromatic flavors, which are either naturally sweet or normally sweetened before eating.

2.1.2. Vegetables

• It exhibits wide verity of plant structure like edible seeds, roots, stems, leaves, bulbs (Fig. 2), tubers and non-sweet fruits of herbaceous plants.

• Vegetables are grouped into 3 main categories

? Seeds and pods-contain natural wax coating. Eg. Many legumes

? Bulbs, roots and tubers with no coating, but tuber has suberisation

? Flowers, buds, stems and leaves having low shelf life

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Australia and Malaysia.

• Introduced by British people in Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu for fuel and timber.

• Commercially grown in Seychelles, Java, South Africa, Guatemala, Congo and Brazil.

• Eucalyptus tereticornis - Commercial species

• Major growing states - UP, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

12.2. Economic importance

• Known as spotted gum tree.

• Source of citronellol, hydroxycitronellal and menthol.

• Contains 0.5-4% essential oil; rich in citronella.

• Essential oil - Therapeutic and ayurvedic benefits.

• Used in soaps, mouth wash liquids, massage oils, air fresheners and bug repellents

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Grows wild in temperate Himalayas.

• Common in Kashmir Valley, Shimla and Nainital Hills.

• Commercially cultivated in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

6.2. Economic importance

• Sweet worm wood or annual worm wood

• Chemical constituents - Artimisinin

• Commonly used in garlands, bouquets and religious offerings in most part of the country.

• Leaves and flowers contain essential oil valued for its exquisite and delicate aroma and is used in high grade perfumes and cosmetics.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of the Cape Province in South Africa.

• Grown in India, South Africa, Belgium, China, Congo, Egypt, France, Madagascar, Morocco, Reunion Islands, Spain, former USSR countries.

• Commercially cultivated mainly in Nilgiris and Kodaikanal hills of Tamil Nadu, and in and around Bangalore in Karnataka.

5.2. Economic importance

• Very profound and strong rose like odour.

• Also known as rose geranium.

• Chief constituent of oil - geraniol and citronellol.

4.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Indian sub-continent.

• Native of Tropical Asia and introduced into tropics of both hemispheres.

4.2. Economic importance

• Economic part-roots up to 30-40 cm, cooling properties

• Maj or constituents - vetivone, vetiverols and vetivernate; obtained by steam distillation of roots

• One of finest oriental perfumes with persistent fragrance.

• Used in manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, perfumery, agarbattis, soft drinks, pan masala etc.

• Acts as excellent fixatives for volatile compounds.

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Sri Lanka.

• Cultivated throughout tropics.

• Presently maj or producers - China, Vietnam, Indonesia, Argentina, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Madagascar and India.

3.2. Economic importance

• Two types of citronella oil: Java citronella oil obtained from Cymbopogon winterianus which is superior.

• Another is Ceylon citronella oil which is obtained from Cymbopogon nardus inferior type oil.

• Citronella oil - essential oil containing citronellal, geranial and hydroxy citronellal and high value perfumery bases obtained on steam distillation of citronella grass.

• Used for perfuming soaps, detergents, cosmetics, agarbattis and for making mosquito repellent creams.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to South East Asia especially India

• In India, it is cultivated in MP, Maharashtra and AP

1.2. Economic importance

• Oil of palmarosa - rusa or rusha or rosha

• Oil obtained from C. martini var. sofia - ginger grass oil.

• Essential oil - Geraniol- East Indian Geranium.

• Motia grass - fine yellow stem with dark green leaves and height 1.80-2.40 m.

• Sofia grass - purple stem, shorter (90-120 cm)

• Used as base for fine perfumery

26.1. Origin

• Native to Dalmatia (Yugoslavia), Herzegovina and Montenegro.

26.1. Economic importance

• Natural insecticide from dried flower heads.

• Seed or achene contains Pyrethrin I, II, Cinerin I, II, Jasmolin I, II collectively called Pyrethrins.

26.2. Varieties and types

• KKL-1 released from TNAU.

• Hansa and Jhelum released from CIMAP, Lucknow.

• Sel-2 - developed at the Kodaikanal Centre of CIMAP.

• Two types

? Dalmatian pyrethrum: C. cinerariaefolium, grown on the Easte Coast of the Adriatic Sea.

? Japanese pyrethrum also derived from C. cinerariaefolium.

25.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Western and South Western Europe, Western and Central Asia and Erstwhile USSR countries.

25.2. Economic importance

• Dried leaves constitute the drug, digitoxin and gitoxin.

• Used to treat congestive heart failure and heart rhythm problems.

• Increase blood flow throughout the body and reduce swelling in hands and ankles.

25.3. Varieties

• Strain E.C. 115996 - Higher foliage yield with high glycoside content

25.4. Climate

• Requires a cool and mild climate (20-30°C)

• Well in hill slopes at elevation of above 1250 m above msl

25.5. Soil

• Well drained sandy soil rich in organic matter and slightly acidic (pH 5.5-6.5)

24.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in hills of South Western India, Indo-Malaya region.

24.2. Economic importance

• Used to improve appetite and digestion and treat stomachache, heart burn, indigestion, intestinal gas, diarrhoea and cholera.

• Fruits are stomachic and carminative.

• Used for lung problems including Asthma, bronchitis and cough.

24.3. Varieties

• Vellanikara -1 (Visvum tippili) and Yercaud (Pl) - 9.

24.4. Climate

• Elevation between 100 and 1000 m.

• Shade intensity: 20-25%.

• Lower elevations with high humidity

23.1. Origin and distribution

• Native from South Eastern Asia (Indonesia) to Australia

• Indian mulberry

23.2. Economic importance

• Widely used for health restorative properties, over years popularity diminished due to unpleasant smell from ripened fruit.

• Helps in reducing high blood pressure and cures heart disease and stroke due to presence of scopoletin which dilate blood vessels resulting in lower blood pressure.

• Stimulates body’s production of nitric oxide, a chemical which allows the blood vessel to dilate more easily and more elastic.

• Anti-inflammatory and histamine inhibiting effects, excellent for promotion of smooth joint movement.

18.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of wetlands of Southern and Eastern India, Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and North and South America

• Cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical India.

18.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Chemical constituents: Bacosides

• Used as a nerve tonic and for epilepsy and insanity.

• Used as diuretic and for treating rheumatisim, asthma and hoarseness.

17.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India, China, Indonesia, Madagascar and Africa.

17.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant mainly leaves and roots.

• Cures leprosy, skin diseases, diarrhoea, anti-tumor and anti-ulcer activity.

• Fresh herb - Aromatic odour when crushed.

• Nauseous bitter taste

• Kitchen herb - Chutneys, pickles, refreshing drinks

• Possess insecticidal properties

• Used as a nerve tonic for improving memory and in insanity.

16.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Asia

• Widely distributed in tropical regions of Asia and Pan tropics

• Most part of India up to 1000m elevation includes Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

16.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Seed, roots.

• Black seed variety contains L - DOPA CL - 34 dihydroxy phenylalanine non-protein amino acid.

• Used as tonic, aphrodisiac and treatment of Parkinson’s disease

• Used in rheumatic ailments.

15.1. Origin and distribution

• Also known as Cheeni tulsi or Mou tulsi.

• Originated from Seirra Amambay in North eastern Paraguay and adjacent areas in Bolivia and Brazil.

• Widely distributed in U SA and Brazil.

15.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - leaves

• Candy leaf

• Major constituents-Stevioside (3 to 10%), rebaudiside-A (13%), rebaudiside- B and C

14.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Africa and distributed throughout warmer regions of world

• Naturally grown in hilly areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

14.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root

• Roots of safed musli contains 2-15% saponin having medicinal property of enhancing vitality and immunity to human beings.

• Also helps in correcting gynecological disorders.

• Dried tubers - Used as curative for pre-natal and post-natal illness, arthritis, restorative and a health tonic

• Known as divya aushadhi and ayurvedic anori.

13.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Turkey Western Mediterranean region.

• Cultivation in India - Confined to states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh

13.2. Economic importance

• Opium and codeine - important medicines used for analgesic and hypnotic effects.

• A semi-synthetic derivative of drug from morphine - Heroin.

• Seeds contain linoleic acid which lowers blood cholesterol.

• License from Government is mandate for cultivation

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Persia and neighbouring tracts of Western and Southern Asia

• In India, North Guj arat, Raj asthan, Haryana and Bihar are the maj or states.

• Husk and peel - exported to USA, Germany, UK and France

12.2. Economic importance

• Psyllium from Greek meaning flea, in reference to colour, size and shape.

• Economic part - Seed coat, husk used in indigenous medicine. Seeds contain glucoside and tannin.

• Works as an anti-diarrhoea drug.

• Seed - Pentose, a sugar is isolated.

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in India

• Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha, Upper Gangetic Plains and in Nilgiris, ascending to altitude of 1600 m.

• North-east, North-west, Southern as well as Central India, and extends into Myanmar and China.

11.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Raw materials for production of steroidal drugs, steroid bearing solanum

• Yields a glyco alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine.

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India and tropical South East Asia.

• Distributed throughout plains of India from Uttar Pradesh to Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

10.2. Economic importance

• King of bitters.

• Economic part - Dried leaves and tender shoots (Whole plant)

• Leaves contain three bitter principles: Deoxy andrographolide, Andrographolide and Neo andrographolide.

• Roots contain flavonoids like andrographin, panicothin, aplegenin etc.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in Tropical America

• Distributed in all tropical and sub-tropical regions

9.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and hypophyllanthin

• Antioxidant with free radical scavenging properties due to presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase.

• Effective in treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc.

• Treatment of Hepatitis B and j aundice

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Eastern and Southern Africa, the Canary Islands and Spain.

• Spread to Mediterranean basin, West Indies, India, China.

• Also cultivated in India. It is the miracle plant.

8.2. Economic importance

• Source of drug aloe; aloe gel is a mixture of glucoside aloin, main constituent of atom is barbation.

• Commercially important species - A. barbadensis, A. ferox, A. africana and A. spicata

• Yellow bitter juice from leaves consists of aloin and gel.

• Other products - dehydrated aloe powder, concentrates.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia, Central America.

• Mexico - largest producer of diosgenin.

• In India, it is grown in North eastern states and Goa

• Dioscorea alata and Dioscorea esculenta - edible tubers.

• Dioscorea floribunda, Dioscorea villosa, Dioscorea composita - widely grown

• Major producing countries - Mexico, Guatamala, Costa Rica, India and China.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to moist deciduous forest of south East Asia (Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Andaman Islands)

• In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North Bengal, Parts of Western Ghats and Assam are the major cultivators.

6.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root.

• Used in treatment of snake bite, stings, nervous disorders etc.,

• Root bark - 40-60% alkaloids helps in reducing high blood pressure and sedative or tranquilizing agent.

• Fresh roots - Emit acrid aroma very bitter.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of tropical Asia and Africa.

• Tropical India, from North-west Himalayas to Assam and Deccan plateau.

• In Karnataka, it is grown along Western Ghats.

• Important species in India - Gloriosa superba and G. rothschildiana.

• Tamil Nadu leads in production of glory lily in India

• State flower of Tamil Nadu

5.2. Economic importance

• Economic part: Seed

• Rhizomes are used as a tonic, antiperiodic, antihelminthic and also against snake bites and scorpion stings.

• Used for promoting labour pains and an abortifacient.

4.1. Origin and distribution

• It is called as Indian ginseng.

• Native of Africa, India and Mediterranean region.

• Wild in grazing grounds in Mandsaur and forest lands in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, all over foothills of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh, in Himalayas.

• Also wild in Mediterranean regions in North Africa.

4.2. Economic importance

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia

• Distributed all over tropical and sub-tropical regions of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, tropical east Africa, Brazil.

• In India, sub-tropical Himalayan regions from Kumaon to Nepal.

• Cultivated in parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

3.2. Economic importance

• Dried roots - rich source of forskholin (Coleonol) (0.10 to 0.80%)

• Used for treating hypertension, glaucoma, asthma, congestive heart failures and certain types of cancer.

• Tuberous roots, resembles carrot in shape and brown in colour - commercial part.

• Useful against cholesterol and activating the cardio vascular system

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Madagascar and spread to India, Indonesia, Indo-China, Philippines, South Africa, Israel, USA and other parts of the world.

• In India, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Assam are the major states that cultivate periwinkle.

• USA - world’s largest user as raw material.

• Germany, Italy, Netherlands and the UK are interested in roots.

2.2. Economic importance

• Economic parts: Leaves, stem and roots

• Used as an abortificent, purgative, antidiabetic, diuretic, hemorrhagic antimalarial, antidysentric and against skin diseases