eChapters

Introduction

Baking is not a new concept to us. Baking process dates thousand years back since the Paleolithic age. During those days, the baking was done by simply grinding the grains, mixed with water and baked on the hot rocks. The bread produced that time was not leavened but flat. Ancient Egyptians have the credit for development of baking between 2600-1200 BC. Roman Empire also had the popularity of the art of baking and bakeries were in existence in Europe too during Middle Age. Baking was considered a highly respected profession under the Roman Empire. The art of baking has travelled a long journey since then. The bakery and confectionary has undergone a gradual evolution with time. Great technical progress stared in the nineteenth century. Development of automatic machines reduced the task of the manual labour and because of this development the bakers could perform many more tasks with the machines. Today’s baking has a dependency on the machines. All the work is performed by the automated machines whereas the bakers only control the machine operations. The baking process has become easier, the efficiency has increased and the quality of the products has improved because of these high-tech machines. The preparation of bakery products using traditional methods has also improved over the time to minimize the energy and time consumption. Today’s consumer is very much concerned about his/her health and look for the healthy options in baked products. The trend has led to various innovative formulations for the baked products so that the health benefits may also be provided not only the calories. This chapter will discuss various advancements and trends in different types of bakery and confectionary products.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to:
Perform the cut out test for the given sample of food product.
Principle

The cut-out test is conducted to evaluate the overall quality of canned food. This test involves examining the condition of the food contents, the external and internal state of the can, and other characteristics of the product through various organoleptic, physical, and chemical assessments.

Materials and Equipment

1. Canned food: 4?6 nos. Cans

2. Tone tester

3. Physical balance

4. Vacuum gauge

5. Can opener

6. Brix refractometer

7. Scale

8. pH paper near neutral ranges.

Ex.No.1. MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF FRUITS

Fruits are living structures that continue to perform metabolic reactions and sustain physiological processes for a considerable length of time after harvest. The post-harvest infection of fruits by microorganisms may cause serious losses of fruits both in terms of quantity and quality. Initial infection which may be the direct result of mechanical or insect damage is followed by invasion of fruit tissues by secondary infection by common saprophytic organisms. . Many bacteria and fungi, for instance, are involved in decay after harvest. Typical fungi include Alternaria, Botrytis, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Monilia, Penicillium, and Rhizopus. These fungi are generally weak pathogens, in that they usually infest only weak or damaged fruit. Molds are the most predominant spoilage organisms in fruits. Fungal rots in fruits like apple show brown or cream coloured areas.

Bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia carotovora is wide spread in fruits that are not very acid. Fruits like straw berries, melons are in direct contact with moist soil and become infected from that source.

Introduction
This method consists of mixing the microorganisms in a small amount of India ink or nigrosine and spreading the mixture over a clean slide. These two pigments are not really bacterial stain and do not penetrate the microorganisms. These pigments make the background dark thus making organisms transparent against dark background. This method is useful for determining cell morphology and accurate size as no shrinkage of cells due to heat.
Materials
1. Bacterial culture (B. subtilis)
2. Microscopic slides (Clean, Grease Free)
3. Inoculating needle
4. Cedar wood oil
5. Microscope
6. Xylene

A. Gram’s Staining
Introduction
The most widely used staining procedure in microbiology is the Gram stain, discovered by the Danish scientist and physician Hans Christian Joachim Gram in 1884. Gram staining is a differential staining technique that differentiates bacteria into two groups: gram-positives and gram-negatives. The procedure is based on the ability of microorganisms to retain color of the stains used during the gram stain reaction. Gram-negative bacteria are decolorized by the alcohol, losing the color of the primary stain, purple. Gram positive bacteria are not decolorized by alcohol and will remain as purple. After decolorization step, a counterstain is used to impart a pink color to the decolorized gramnegative organisms.
The Gram stain procedure enables bacteria to retain color of the stains, based on the differences in the chemical and physical properties of the cell wall.
1. Gram positive bacteria: Stain dark purple due to retaining the primary dye called Crystal Violet in the cell wall. Example: Staphylococcus aureus
2. Gram negative bacteria: Stain red or pink due to retaining the counter staining dye called Safranin

1. Introduction

India is a land of large varieties of fruits and vegetables due to its vast soil and climatic diversity. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, with an annual production of fruits 45.5 Million tonnes and vegetables 90.8 Million tonnes. It contributes 10.23% and 14.45% of the total world production of fruits and vegetables (F&V) respectively (NHB, 2010). Though fruits and vegetables are grown only on 7–8% of gross cultivated area, these contribute more than 18.8% of the gross value of agricultural output and 52% export earnings from total agricultural produce. These have a high export potential of 20-30 times more foreign exchange per unit area than cereals due to higher yields and higher price available in the international market (Sen et al., 2012). According to estimates, the per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables in India is only around 46g and 130g which are far below the stipulation of a minimum of 92g and 300g respectively as recommended by the Indian Council of Medical Research and National Institute of Nutrition. The low availability is mainly due to considerably high post-harvest losses. About 15-20% of the fruits and vegetables are wasted every year in the country, due to poor post-harvest management and lack of infrastructural facilities for processing and storage, amounting to a revenue loss of over Rs. 625 billion.

The sensorial, nutritional, and organoleptic quality of fresh produce starts deteriorating after harvest as a result of soon after harvest the altered plant metabolism and microbial growth. The quality deterioration is the result of produce respiration and transpiration, senescence, ripening-associated processes, wound-initiated reactions, development of postharvest disorders, microbial proliferation leading to postharvest quality loss. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the respiration and ripening processes and the physiological and biochemical changes during ripening. The best way to reduce respiratory metabolism is to reduce the storage temperature. All biological processes proceed more slowly at lower temperature (Yahia, 2007). In general, O₂ levels must be reduced to less than 10 % to see a reduction in the rate of respiration. Respiration rate is temperature dependent; so, as the temperature reduces the amount of oxygen required also drops. Therefore, oxygen levels must be substantially reduced at low temperature for it to affect the rate of respiration. It must however, be ensured that O₂ levels do not fall below extinction point as anaerobic respiration and decay may occur. Tolerance to low O₂ varies between species and cultivars and is also time dependent. Commodities may be able to tolerate low O₂ for short periods of time. Low O₂ can also be tolerated when CO₂ is low.

Materials Required

Fruit, pulper, fruit mill, hydraulic press, screw type juice extractor, stainless steel pans, chemical preservatives, glass bottles, closures, crown corks, crown corking machine, plastic barrels.

Procedure

    1.    Select and weigh sound fruits/vegetables for extraction of juice/pulp.    
    2.    Wash and peel the fruits as required.
    3.    Extract the juice by hot or cold process.
    4.    Pasteurize the juice/pulp to inactivate the enzymes and partially kill microorganisms.
    5.    Preserve the juice/pulp by heat processing after hot filling and hermetic sealing or by addition of permissible quantities of suitable preservatives.
    6.    Label the bottles properly and keep them for storage

EXPERIMENT

TECHNOLOGY FOR EXTRACTION OF KERNEL OIL FROM STONE FRUITS

Apricot, peach, plum, cherries, nectarines etc are the important stone fruits belonging to the family Rosaceae. These fruits are known to contain stones/pits i.e., apricot (6.0-11.5%), peach (7.5-11.5%), plum (4.5-7.0%) and these stones are reported to contain kernels (%) apricot (28.0-32.0%), peach (5.7-5.9%), plum (10.0-20.8%), almond (28.0-30.0%). These kernels can yield an oil yield of (42.5-45.5%), (38.5-41.5%), (39.2-40.6%) and (52.0-58.9%), respectively. Thus, these stone fruit kernels can be utilized for extraction of kernel oil by using the improved technology developed for extraction of oil. The developed technology consists of mechanical decortication of stones by the use of mechanical decorticator, kernel separation by using specific gravity separation technique, oil extraction by using table oil expeller and oil filtration through oil filter press followed by packing in PET bottles and PE pouches.

Mechanical decorticator: The mechanical decorticator is a type of roller crusher consisting of two rollers moving in inward opposite directions with the help of 3 HP motor and is provided with a hopper and feeder assembly. The clearance between two rollers is adjusted according to the respective size of stones.

Table oil expeller: Oil expeller is a 24 patti screw type oil expeller driven by 7HP motor, in which the kernels are fed into the moving hopper at pre-determined flow rate, which are pressed in between rollers (worm) and side walls of the expeller. The kernels are then, passed through the expeller 3-4 times until a thin slice of press cake is obtained.

Introduction

Fruits, vegetables and some non food crops are rich source of natural antioxidants, food colorants and other bioactive natural products. Nutraceuticals and natural food colorants exhibit anti-oxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and anti-proliferative properties. They tend to enhance ability of the body to fight, cure and prevent diseases. Natural anti-oxidants are particularly important because they scavenge harmful superoxide, hydroxy, and/or peroxide free radicals, and protect the body against a variety of cancers, heart and other life style related diseases. Vegetable like orange carrot, red carrot, black carrot, beet root, tomato, chilli, and fruits like pomegranate, cherries, berries, watermelon and jamun are rich source of natural antioxidants and food colorants. While tomato and red carrot are rich in lycopenes, and carotenes; black carrot is a major source of stable acylated anthocyanins. The dark red colour of beet root is associated with anthocyanin, betacyanin and betaxanthins. Similarly, the red colour of chilli is attributed to the carotenoid pigment capsanthin. Capsaicinoids in chilli are responsible for the hot flavour and anti-inflammatory properties. Antioxidant and other beneficial health effects of pomegranate, cherries, berries, etc. have been attributed to anthocyanins and related polyphenols. Jamun, an under-utilized tropical fruits is rich in anthocyanins and flavonoides. Like anthocyanins, flavonoides and carotenes, lycopene helps to prevent various types of cancer particularly the prostate cancer.

Microalgae represent a promising alternative to renewable source of feedstock for natural food colorants and nutraceuticals and functional food production. With over 40,000 identified species, microalgae are one of the most diverse groups of organisms on earth. They naturally produce large quantities of many biomaterials. Out of the diverse compounds produced by microalgae, the algal pigments such as phycobillins, carotenoids and xanthophylls have gained commercial importance owing to their unique and multiple applications as food and cosmetic colourants, antioxidants and several beneficial effects of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical value. Microalgal research over the years has geared up significantly from outdoor mass culture in algal ponds, refinement of the cultivation process and life cycle assessment, downstream processing of biomass (i.e., harvesting, dewatering, and drying), to extraction, to systems/process scale-up analysis and development of an economic feasibility model for commercialization of algal biomaterials with nutraceutical properties. Among the various microalgae, Spirulina and Haematococcus are the major source of naturally occurring biopigments which are gaining importance as natural pigments in food, drug and cosmetic industries as an alternative to currently used synthetic colour. Improvement in the cultivation methodologies and use of closed photobioreactors of different configurations, fermentation reactors, open reactors and tubular reactors have opened up new vistas for the development of microalgal biotechnology and bioprospecting. The main constraints in non-exploitation for mass cultivation of microalgae are their slow growth rate, low biomass yield and inadequate culture methodologies and these issues remain to be addressed.

1. Algal Biomass

Algae is defined as heterogeneous assemblage of organisms that range in size from tiny cells to giant seaweeds, thus algae mostly are photosynthetic species which include eukaryotes and prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and live in aquatic habitats. They are ubiquitous in nature and are found in variety of environments ranging from soil, sand, marshes, brackish water, sea and fresh water. Most of them are capable of manufacturing their own food.

Microalgal research is offering wide potential in food biotechnology and is gaining more attention because of presence of wide range of bioactive and nutraceutical properties and added health benefits.The increasing population is one of the major growing concerns of today’s world. To meet the nutritional requirement of the rising population, researchers are looking for optional sources for food which are easy to cultivate, cost effective and produce large amount of bioactive compounds useful to prevent major diseases. Chlorella is unicellular green alga that is a potential source of nutrients like carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Especially, omega-3 fatty acid and carotenoids have received considerable interests due to their roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. Lutein and zeaxanthin from Chlorella have been shown to be associated with eye health and function. Beta-carotene is known to reduce the risk of CVDs and certain cancers. Animal studies also demonstrated that Chlorella supplementation reduced the serum cholesterol levels.

Similarly, the blue green microalgae Spirulina, possesses diverse biological activities and nutritional significance. Regular consumption of Spirulina fortified food improves immune system by increasing phagocytic activity of macrophages, stimulating the production of antibodies and cytokines, increase accumulation of NK cells into tissue and activation and mobilization of T and B cells. Spirulina have also shown to perform regulatory role on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism by exhibiting glucose and lipid profile correcting activity in experimental animals and in diabetic patients. They were also found to be active against several enveloped viruses including herpes virus, cytomegalovirus, influenza virus and HIV. They are capable to inhibit carcinogenesis due to antioxidant properties.

Extrusion cooking is an emerging technology having advantages of low production cost, capable of producing end products in various shapes and sizes, from a variety of food materials with easy digestibility, maintaining hygiene and high product quality and leaving no effluents or hazardous materials. Minimal energy consumption and processing costs and possibility of flavour addition are the added advantages of technology. The process/technique has the versality and ability to constituently produce a given product in continuity at a given set of pre – determined specifications. It destroys fat splitting enzymes to avoid rancidity and thus extends the shelf life of products considerably. Microorganisms present in food materials are destroyed. It can be effectively utilized to develop functional and designer foods by using several locally available under-utilized food materials. However, it leads to increased package cost as puffed or expanded food products have low bulk density. R & D studies are further needed for co – extrusion of variety of cereals with high fibre content foods and micronutrients.

1.1 Introduction and Background

In present scenario, the word “extrusion” refers to a process by which dry or semi-moist ingredients with varying in-barrel moisture are forced through varying barrel temperature, screw speed and screw configuration through a die opening of the desired cross section. In other words, extrusion is predominantly a thermo-mechanical processing operation that combines several unit operations, including mixing, coating, kneading, venting, shearing, heating, forming, partial drying or puffing, depending on the material and equipment used.

The origins of extrusion are in the metallurgical industry, where in 1797 Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process, wherein a piston driven device was used for making seamless lead pipes. The present understanding of extrusion technology and the developments or improvements in machine design are largely due to research carried out by the plastics industry. In food industry, this technology is in use since 1930 and its popularity is increasing continuously due to its efficiency, continuity and sustainability. In beginning, sausage extruders were developed in the nineteenth century as simple forming machines. One of the original developments which laid the foundation of the food extrusion was the use of pasta press termed as “cold extruder” in mid 1930s. Furthermore, in the late 1930s, General Mills, Incorporation., Minneapolis, MN, USA, first used a single screw extruder in the manufacture of ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals. Later in 1970s, twin screw extruders were used for the manufacture of moist pet-foods. Twin screw extruders were also adapted from polymer industry, as rising food quality and limitations of single screw extruders were demanding a more versatile process for the newer and higher quality products. After 1970s, the extrusion processing with simultaneous use of heat was popularized as a versatile and highly energy efficient with negligible wastage process. In all these years, number of changes has been noted in the extruder design such as changes in screw design, barrel design and also material used for the manufacture of these materials. Barrel liners availability along with already available segmented screws could further add more economics to the process and increased equipment lifetime. For better wearing characteristics, a number of screw elements of different materials are being used in addition to standard nitrided steel for customized processing needs, such as corrosion and wear resistant surface coated steels, stainless steel, satellite welded and bimetallic HIP (Hot Isostatic Press). JBL Feedscrews Limited, a UK based company recently introduced tungsten carbide coated screw in conjunction with a compatible bimetallic barrel. Likewise, a number of options for barrel metallurgy are available to withstand the higher internal pressure and temperature. Barrels lined with hard cobalt based alloy, typically Xaloy, to give abrasion and chemical resistance are also in use, although, the most common material is carbon steel with a nitride interior. Similarly, steam heated or jacketed barrels were used earlier for cooking purpose which gradually replaced by the electric induction heating elements. These HTST cooking extruders are versatile, highly productive and energy efficient processing machines. They can use a wide variety of raw materials and formulations to produce products with increased shelf-life and convenience.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 258).

Facultative anaerobic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Falling rate period: It is that part of the drying process during which the drying rate varies with time and the instantaneous drying rate per unit surface or weight of dry material continuously decreases. Falling rate takes place when most of the moisture has been evaporated during constant rate period. The falling rate period during dehydration take place in the final stage of dehydration when the food commodities have large amount of free water available for evaporation. Here, rate of removal of the moisture from the food to the surrounding is continuously decreasing / falling per unit time.

Postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables is defined as “that weight of wholesome edible product (exclusive of moisture content) that is normally consumed by human and that has been separated from the medium and sites of its immediate growth and production by deliberate human action with the intention of using it for human feeding but which for any reasons fails to be consumed by human.” Not only quantity and quality but even the appearance of fruits and vegetables are affected, and their market value is reduced. Most ‘skin deep’ injuries such as ‘fly speck’ in apples do not affect the edible part. Some infections are not harmful as they occur on inedible parts and can be trimmed off before consumption ego Colletotrichum spots on the outer leaves of cabbage]. Fresh fruits and vegetables are perishable and highly prone to these losses because they are composed of living tissues. These tissues must be kept alive and health throughout the process of marketing. These are composed of thousands of living cells which require care and maintenance (Alao, 2000). The pathological rots are the most serious which is followed by mechanical injury. Pathological rots in combination with mechanical damage cause serious damage to the perishables. Environmental factors such as temperature, relative humidity and oxygen balance most especially during storage are also greatly responsible for damage also environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity are responsible for rendering fruits and vegetables susceptible for pathological attacks (Yahaya and Mardiyya, 2019). Fungi and bacteria are the major pathogens, which cause postharvest diseases in crops leading to about 30 % loss. Normally diseases will be more at improper temperature and relative humidity. Apart from causing disease, pathogens are also involved in ethylene production, which hastens the deterioration of the product.

    1.    Wohler (1828) synthesized the first organic compound, urea from inorganic components.

    2.    Emil Fischer (1894) demonstrated the specificity of enzymes and the lock and key relationship between enzyme and substrate.

    3.    Michaelis and Menten (1913) developed kinetic theory of enzyme action

    4.    Watson and Crick (1953) Proposed the double-helical model for DNA structure

    5.    Ingo potrykus (1999) Golden rice- rich in b-carotene.

    6.    Glyoxysomes : Glyoxysomes are temporary in that they occur during transient periods in the life cycle of a plant such as in certain beans and nuts which store fats in their seeds as energy reserves. Glyoxysomes appear in the first few days after seed germination in endosperm cells and associate closely with lipid bodies. They disappear after the storage fats are broken down and converted into carbohydrate.

1. Lecithin is an example of
   1. Carbohydrates
   2. Hormones
   3. Vitamins
   4. Phospholipids
2. Which of the following acts as storehouse of energy in body?
   1. Hormone
   2. Vitamins
   3. Fats
   4. All of these

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats are cream, butter, egg yolk, the fat of beef, mutton, pork, bone marrow, chicken fat, and codliver oil. Vegetable fats are those derived from fruits and seeds of plant, as olive oil, cottonsed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soyabean oil and nut oils.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FATS

Fats and oils, the most concentrated of fuel foods, were the first of the organic compounds or foods to have their composition determined. They are made up of same three elements which go to produce the carbohydrates, but the oxygen is less in proportion to the carbon. This explains the fact that fat yields more energy per gram than carbohydrates do.

Lipids are a class of compounds that are defined by how they are isolated, rather than by their composition. Lipids are molecules that can be extracted from plants and animals by low polarity solvents such as ether, chloroform, or even acetone. They are not appreciably soluble in water. Fats and the fatty acids from which they are made belong to this group as do oils, waxes and steroids. Hydrolyzable lipids are those that contain a functional group that will react with water. The functional group is usually an ester and the list of compounds includes neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Non- hydrolyzable lipids lack such functional groups and include steroids and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. A, D, E, and K).

Fats and oils are composed of triacylglycerols. These are compounds prepared by the union of glycerol (1,2, 3-tri- hydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a triester. Fats and oils belong to a group of biological substances called lipids. Lipids are biological chemicals that do not dissolve in water. They serve a variety of functions in organisms, such as regulatory messengers (hormones), structural components of membranes, and as energy storehouses. Fats and oils generally function in the latter capacity. Fats differ from oils only in that they are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid. Fats and oils share a common molecular structure. The fats and oils contain three ester functional groups. Fats and oils are esters of the tri- alcohol, glycerol (or glycerine). Therefore, fats and oils are commonly called triglycerides, although a more accurate name is triacylglycerols. Triglyceride molecules contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, with only six oxygen atoms per molecule. This means that fats and oils are highly reduced (un-oxidized). Oils are particularly common in seeds, where the stored energy helps seedlings during germination, until they can exploit solar energy through photosynthesis. Fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 36, bonded in an unbranched chain. Most of the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds. If all of these bonds are single bonds, the fatty acid is said to be saturated, because the number of atoms attached to each carbon atom is the maximum of four. If some of the bonds between carbon atoms are double bonds, then the fatty acid is unsaturated. When there is only one double bond, it is usually between the 9th and 10th carbon atom in the chain, where the carbon atom attached to the oxygen atoms is counted as the first carbon atom. If there is a second double bond, it usually occurs between the 12th and 13th carbon atoms, while a third is usually between the 15th and 16th.

Introduction India is a country of festivals and celebrations. Indian sweets enjoy a legendary reputation across the world. India is home to a number of delicious sweets that play a vital role in every Indian celebration. While gulab jamuns, rasgullas and kaju katlis may be the most popular sweets in the country (Pal Sanchari, 2016). Functions and events in India are celebrated with intake of sweets. Also, it is customary to sweeten the mouth in social gathering like marriage, birthday, poojas, etc. (Gulati and Misra, 2014). In the past few years, guidelines are formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars. In view of the rising prevalence of overweight, obesity and related disorders globally, in 2002, the WHO recommended that sugar should be less than 10 percent of daily calories. The consensus dietary guidelines for Indians in 2011 recommend less than 10% of total calories from free sugars per day. In May 2014, the expert panel of WHO recently recommended decreasing sugar intake to 5% of total calorie intake to combat obesity. A high intake of added sugars is a primary risk factor for diabetes. It is these added sugars in sweets that makes them palatable, but also does the physical damage. (Willet Brian, 2011). People have developed taste towards food in which fat and sugar contents are high.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to South Eastern Europe, West Asia and Mediterranean region.

• Cultivated in Central and Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, India, and Northern Africa.

• In India, cultivated in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab.

2.2. Economic importance

• Culinary use in smaller quantities.

• Used as an herb (Dried or fresh leaves), spice (Seeds) and vegetable (Fresh leaves, sprouts, and micro greens).

• Seeds are used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal and spice mixes such as panch phoron and sambar powder.

• Balance cholesterol.

• Soothe upset stomach and digestive problems.

• Reduce menstrual cramps.

• Seeds are aphrodisiac effect.

• Reduce appetite.

Fermentation was known to mankind from time immemorial. But, development of biochemical principles of  fermentation  was originated by  Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing chemical composition of  sugar and its fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and  acetic acid. Many products are produced by fermentation process. In fermentation, controlled action of selected microorganisms is used to alter  texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol or to produce fine flavours and aromas which increase value of raw materials.

Introduction

Fermentation is one of the oldest food preservation techniques that can be traced back thousands of years. Fermentation is referred as one of method of biopreservation as it leads to extending the shelf life of foods that involve the use of microorganisms and their metabolites. (Ross et al., 2002) For millennia, the fermentation of food by using micro organisms has been used as a technique for ensuring shelf life extension and improving the quality characteristics, texture and flavour of food products as well as to develop new innovative products. The major bacteria used in food fermentation worldwide are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB is a multitude of genera including Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Enterococcus. Lactic acid bacteria constitutes a diverse group of bacteria that enjoys the status of “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS) and “qualified presumption of safety” (QPS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), respectively. In this respect, starter microorganisms are known to produce a wide array of antimicrobial and protein-acoustic compounds to inhibit the growth of undesirable flora in foodstuffs resulting in shelf life extension. (Hill et al., 2017).

1. INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is an age old technology. It has been used by man since antiquity. It has been employed to produce a number of fermented products such as wine, beer, curd, vinegar, pickles and several others. Fermentation was discovered quite early and by chance but the underlying principles were discovered very late. Primarly fermentation was used as a method of shelf-life extension of the produce in the time of glut production, though the final product had modified sensory qualities. Thus, fermentation and drying were the main methods of preservation. With the discovery of new methods of preservation, fermentation as a method of preservation has gone into background and as technique of flavour development and product with modified sensory quality came into practice. In this chapter, fermentation as a method of preservation has been described.

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years fermentation processes were largely natural phenomena exclusively identified with food preservation throughout the world. Fermentations can play a significant role in meeting the ever growing food requirements of world population providing benefits in the form of innovative food products with improved nutritional value and food quality along side better safety. Fermentations can be used to address a large variety of food related problems and in the development of processes to meet the demand for food. In the wake of estimations made by international organizations that global food demand and population would increase by two-fold by the year 2050, much emphasis has been placed over the ways and means to increase food production and preservation.

Introduction

Wine is a very unique fermented beverage. It was an essential part of various religious and cultural ceremonies in ancient civilizations; and continues to be considered as a ‘drink for elite’. The reason is that wine was considered as ‘Gift of God and ‘God’s nectar’ in religious text books, and medicinal value of the beverage is well supported by modern science. Wine is a beverage well tagged with its geographical origin. This concept originally comes from French concept of terroir; which explains that a varietal wine from a defined region possess distinctive qualities. Wine makers of the past enjoyed this definition of quality for better marketing opportunities. Today, globalization and advancement in wine science created empowered consumers who could clearly discriminate quality of wines. In addition to a product with high sensory qualities, consumers expect a healthful beverage produced in an environmentally sustainable manner. Enology research projects focus on such aspects; and this chapter is a glance on enology advancements and proven health benefits of wine, such as cardiovascular health gut health, dental health etc.

Introduction

Fermented foods are those foods which have been subjected to the action of microorganisms or enzymes that cause desirable biochemical changes and significant modification of the food (Campbell-Piatt, 1994). Fermented foods are usually produced using ingredients of plants or animals in combination with bacteria or fungi. The bacteria or fungi are either sourced from cultures maintained by humans or from the environment. The origins of fermented foods go back many thousands of years, with early evidence of the alcoholic fermentations of barley to beer and grapes to wine. Evidence suggests that fermented foods were consumed 7,000 years ago in Babylon (Battcock and Azam-Ali, 1998).Throughout the world, the fermented foods are used by the people. It plays a major role in the diet in many developing countries. Several traditional fermented foods are prepared in rural areas of many countries.

Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions.

Introduction

Fermentation is an alluring procedure of biochemical adjustment of essential nourishment microorganisms and their enzymes accomplish by lattice. Fermentation is a utilized to upgrade bio-accessibility and bioavailability of supplements from various crops and improves organoleptic properties (e.g., appearance, generation of sour taste and new aroma compounds, and textural changes such as consistency or viscosity) just as increase the shelf life of realistic usability. It makes foodstuff safe not just hindering the growth of pathogenic microorganisms because of antimicrobial growth of lactic acid and it also detoxifies aflatoxin. With these advantages, fermentation is a successful method to reduce the risk of mineral deficiency among population, particularly in developing nations where unrefined cereal or pulses are profoundly consumed. Tragically, it is additionally connected with multiplication of microorganisms, for ex., yeast and molds caused food safety concerns, (Omemu et al; 2011), decrease in provitamin A and antioxidant (Ortiz et al; 2017), carotenoids, just as loss of nutrients and minerals (Hotz & Gibson, 2007).

Fermentation is a minimum cost-efficient procedure for production and preservation of nutrient, therefore fermented food is an important piece of the eating regimen in numerous of the world. In the nineteenth century the scientific study of microbiology began, and just because, the scientific procedure of fermentation was comprehended. several classifications have been utilized to sort the assorted exhibit of the fermented nourishment produced dependent on various microorganisms, and food types, and kinds of fermentation included.

The microorganisms associated with fermentation process fall into three classes: bacteria, yeast, and molds. Yeasts are the principal microorganisms for the fermentation of breads, whereas molds is mainly used in processing of cheese and legumes. Bacteria is included only of the fermentation of cereal product. cereal and tuber fermentation are a lactic and acetic acid producing bacteria. yeast is a piece of mix microbial fermentation by bacteria in weaning food; all the more frequently, be that as it may, alcoholic fermentation of yeast may not totally alluring. Four genera of lactic acid producing bacteria are recognized as overwhelming cereal fermentation to be specific, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Lactococcus spp. all of which require carbohydrate for the energy. Lactic acid and other natural acids produced from hexoses bring down the pH from about 6.5 to about 3.6. In the event that the pH is beneath 4.0, fermented product retard the growth of pathogens and along these lines ensure fermented items.

Fermentation plays a major role in our diet and give the basic foods like bread, yoghurt, wine and cereal and legume based traditional fermented foods. The development of fermented food products can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of human civilization and goes back thousands of years. It arose from the necessity to conserve foods, to make them more digestible and also more enjoyable. During the centuries, man learned by trial and error to conduct the fermentation processes by changing physical and chemical parameters in the basic food ingredients. It took much longer, however, to discover the cause of fermentation processes: only towards the end of the 19th century it was demonstrated, that baker’s yeast is the cause of alcoholic fermentation. Through the development of the technique of "pure microbial culture", the basis for a controlled use of microbes in food industry was established.

The unique feature of fermented foods is the vital role of microorganisms that bring about essential bio-trasformations of the substrates during fermentation contributing number of desirable properties such as improved product shelf life, enriched diet with improved flavor and texture, increased safety, enriched nutritional supplement and probiotic functions. Fermentation is a chemical reaction carried out by many types of microorganisms to obtain energy. Fermentation is a process for production of a product by means of mass culture of microorganisms. In fermentation, microorganisms breakdown complex organic compounds into simpler substances. Although chemical changes and microbial growth usually mean food spoilage, in some cases fermentation is desirable and microorganisms are actually added to foods. For example, in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages, yeasts convert sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the making of yogurt and cheese, lactic acid bacteria convert lactose, a sugar found in milk, to lactic acid. Alcohol, acids, and other compounds produced in fermentation act as preservatives, inhibiting further microbial growth. In addition to its use with alcoholic beverages, cheese, and yoghurt, fermentation is used to produce yeast bread, soy sauce, cucumber pickles, sauerkraut, and other traditional fermented food products. The variation in agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India and diverse form of dietary culture of various ethnical groups produced traditional fermented foods such as idli, dosa (rice-legume based), vada, papad, wari, balle (legume based), bhatura, jelabi, nan (wheat based), paneer, shrikhand (milk based).

Introduction

Eradication of malnutrition and hunger (Sustainable Development Goal, SDG-2) are the major challenges to humanity. Availability of sufficient nutritionally balanced food is the prerequisite for ensuring global food security. Food security is also critical for achievement of SDG 1 (poverty eradication) and SDG 3 (health and well-being) (UNDP, 2019). Changing climatic conditions accompanied by global warming not only acts a major threat for achievement of SDGs but could actually lead to the reversal of the progress already made. The escalating global temperature has jeopardized the food security throughout the world. A great decrease in the global crop yield has been suspected even with a 2°C rise in temperature. On field, it is often associated with crop nutrient loss, less accumulation of micronutrients and low availability of micro-minerals like iron and zinc. Additionally, the effect of the rainfall and temperature has also been observed. The global food prices are projected to increase by 3–84% by 2050 due to the fluctuations in rainfall and temperature (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018).

Millets are the small seeded grains which belong to family Grassacae/Poaceae. Traditionally, millets are used for the food and feed purpose and are among the oldest cultivated crops. The millet species of commercial importance are proso (Panicum miliaceum), foxtail (Setaria italica), barnyard (Echinochloa esculenta), finger (Eleusine coracana), little (Panicum sumatrense) and pearl (Pennisetum glaucum) in different regions of the world. In India, foxtail millet (priyangava), barnyard millet (aanava) and black finger millet (shyaamaka) have been mentioned even in the Yajurveda texts of 4500 BC (Morya et al., 2017). The records of consumption of foxtail and proso millet are as old as 2000 to 1000 BC in China. Cultivation of foxtail millet in Korean peninsula is documented around 3,500–2,000 BC. Foxtail millet is the oldest of all the cultivated millets and is believed to be originated in Southern Asia. From there, it was spread to Europian nations. In the west, cultivation of millets majorly started after 1850 (ICRISAT, 2019)

Introduction

Fermentation of food dates back to ancient practice of wine making. Fermented foods reflect culture and tradition of folklore and emphasis their close association with nature. Various methods employed for fermenting foods aimed in food preservation to reduce wastage; however lactic acid fermentation enhanced nutrition content and improved organoleptic properties. Experimental evidences on benefits on health and wellness on consumption of fermented foods are being reported. Fermentation process used for preparation of indigenous or traditional foods often depend entirely on natural microflora on the surface of raw material and containers used; Practices of fermenting foods are passed on as traditional know how to generations as a legacy. The fermented food manufacturers rely on commercial starter cultures, and highly reliant on indigenous materials as microbial collections are unique and highly variable according to region and products. Therefore, isolation of novel organisms, development of newer products and interactions are being explored using variety of fermented foods obtained through traditional processes

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

1. Introduction

Now a days, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad, 2003). In this regard, functional foods play an important role. The concept of functional foods which has evolved as the role of food in the maintenance of health and well-being and in the prevention of disease, has received increased scientific and commercial interest is recent past. Growth of functional foods markets include increased consumer health awareness, increased popularity of healthy foods, search for food-based drug substitutes, self-medication approach promoted by busy lifestyles and rapidly developing health conscious markets. Functional foods can be defined as foods “that can beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effect, in a way relevant to an improved state of health and wellbeing and/or reduction of risk of disease” (Stanton et al., 2005).

Introduction

Fresh fruit journey from the farm to the consumer’s table is an intricate process which needs a lot of attention. The way that the produce is harvested and handled is of supreme importance in relation to its quality shelf life and general market attractiveness. Improper handling practices during these critical stages can bring both quantitative and qualitative loses hence the perishable produce will lose its commercial value and appeal to the consumers (Kader, 2005). No doubt the significance of successful harvesting and post-harvest handling practices is crucial and has an impact on quality features and safety in case of fresh fruits. Poor management can cause physical assault ripening speed and more susceptibility to the growth of micro-organisms which makes the produce unsuitable for consumption or processing.

A TTO needs a planned budget of five years to sustain it in the long term. This involves budgeting the infrastructure, manpower, research, and outreach programs. The budgetary needs of a TTO will be based on the size and scope of the TTO and the maturity of the parent institution it caters to. The initial years will be focused on capacity development, the appointment of experts, and the establishment of processes of intellectual property management. The mature TTO will generate income through the returns of the licensing agreements and the collaborative efforts with the industry. Nevertheless, external funding through grants and government schemes plays a vital part, particularly in the initial years. The planned budget ensures long-term stability and development of the TTO.
9.1 Budgetary heads
9.1.1 Operational expenditure
Operational expenditure refers to the ongoing costs incurred by a TTO to maintain its day-to-day operations. This includes the cost of maintaining the office, including rent, power and utility bills, computer and network infrastructure, patent management cost, and administration charges. The filing and legal charges also fall within this category. The overheads will be a heavy burden if not planned with finances properly. A TTO has to be provided with a properly planned operational budget that covers the daily operational expenses. The operational expenses help the office perform effectively, sustain the employees, and effectively manage IP. The operational expenses that the budget normally covers include:

Introduction

Fermented meat and fish products have been consumed all over the world since times immemorial and represent one of the most important groups of food. Meat offers its own natural microflora. Hence a wide variety of products have been prepared since ancient times by varying the mixture of meat and salt as well as by the addition of spices and seasonings. Thus, fermented meat products characterize a diversity of flavors and textures and are receiving increased interest from consumers all over the world. Most of these products still depend mainly on local, traditional manufacturing processes since little scientific information is available; but scientific knowledge is very important for consistent production of high quality and safe products.

Meat is an essential part of non-vegetarian diet. It is liked for its unique taste and is a rich source of nutrients like good quality animal proteins, essential amino acids and fatty acids, minerals, trace elements and particularly B-complex vitamins (Singh et al., 2013). The growing concern of consumers regarding health and safety issues has led to the development of functional meat products that promote health and well-being, beyond their nutritional benefits (Grasso, et al., 2014; Tyopponen et al., 2003). This has driven researches in the meat processing sector to increase their efforts in producing such functional meat products, which have incorporated functional ingredients, reduced salt, nitrates/nitrites, cholesterol and fat and modified product fatty acid profiles (Zhang et al., 2010). Fermentation of meat produces a wide range of physical, biochemical and microbial changes in the muscle-based product

7.1 Introduction

Fisheries are emerging as one of the fastest growing food production system all-over the world. The potential for fisheries development world over and especially in India is highly promising in view of physical and biological resources available coupled with technological development. The demand for fish fishery products is ever increasing as the awareness of health benefits are being made available to public at large. The world fish production has not kept pace with demand which means less and less fish is available. Nevertheless, a large fraction of this valuable commodity is wasted due to deterioration after landing or consumer preference. An estimate by FAO [1] indicates nearly 20-25% of the total catches are wasted as postharvest loss. Better utilization of aquatic resources should therefore, aim primarily at reducing this enormous loss by improving preservation of fish and fishery products and upgrading the discarded low value fish to high value fishery products. The processing of fish into different types of products generates considerable waste. Commercially, fish is being processed into fillets, steaks, mince, canned products and a variety of ready-to-eat products. Fish processing plants contributes substantial wastes in the form of skins, bones, offal, exoskeletons from shrimps and nutrients in wash water from surimi plants.

Fish processing waste utilization is an important issue for the seafood industry both from a regulatory standpoint as well as one that has potential economic impacts. It is estimated that only 25-50% of the raw material is utilized for primary products (fillets, canned and stabilized mince production). The remaining 50-75% of the raw material is considered processing waste and is utilized for low-value products or disposed-off at sea. A large volume of solid waste is currently processed into fish meal, fish protein hydrolysates, and fertilizers. A small percentage is processed into higher valued items, such as, seafood flavourants, colourants, chitosan, enzymes, etc.

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sensory science is the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation and includes our basic understanding of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could unfold the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) methodology was first described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be the impediments in solving “the problem of flavour characterization” Further, new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by the food industry, but much more needed in be done if it is to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food and it is taste plus odour. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volatile tastants by the tongue while in other words, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all the possible flavour stimuli that could be encountered is as vast as the galaxy.

Introduction

How one can differentiates between sensory science and sensory evaluation? Perhaps the simplest way would be to think of sensory science as the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation. It could include our basic understandings of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could designate the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) methodology was f irst described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be impediments to solving “the problem of flavour characterization” (Stone et al., 1974). As noted by Pangborn (1964), new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by industry, but much more needed to be done if it was to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food. “Flavour is taste plus odour”. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volative tastants by the tongue. On the other word, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all possible flavour stimuli we could encounter is as vast as the galaxy. However, most of the attempts to define these experiences have historically been over simplified.

1. Flavor is a sensory phenomenon depending upon
   1. Taste, texture or mouthfeel
   2. Odour or aroma, appearance
   3. Temperature - sensation of heat or cold
   4. All of these
2. Flavours are minor constituents of foods, usually
   1. Nutritive
   2. Non - nutritive
   3. Energetic
   4. None of them

Introduction

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Drying and dehydration both can be defined as the process of removing moisture from the foods. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process, wherein heating medium or internal heat generation helps in evaporation of free water molecules from the product. Drying means removal of moisture of food upto a predetermined level where as in dehydration, complete removal of moisture upto bone dry weight of food material. Dehydrated foods have less than 2.5 % moisture content (dry basis) where as dried foods have dry basis moisture content more than 2.5 %. Drying operation consumes energy from 0.38 to 0.63 GJ/ton of food grain. Removal of water from foods using thermal energy thus makes it an energy intensive process. Modes of heat Transfer in various Driers are given in Table 1.Developments in dryer and methods, dryer selection based on form of raw material and typical residence time for various dryer are are given in Table 2,3 and 4, respectively.

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

1.    Food Additives are

(a) Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(b) Non-Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Chemicals, added for preservation

2.    Which is an acceptable application of a food additive?

(a) As a fat replacer

(b) As an antioxidant

(c) As a food colorant

(d) All of these

Introduction

Since ancient times, addition of chemicals to food and food products has been done in order to to accomplish specific functions. Spices, smoke, vinegar, and alcohol were utilised to preserve foods more than 10,000 years ago. Usage of additives in food increased dramatically in the early 1900s, in tandem with advances in food chemistry and preservation. New, tasty, convenient, and healthy meals continue to be in high demand. As a result, by the early 1960s, over 2500 different types of additives were identified and utilized by developing countries in their diets. Basic foods are additive free, but as we increase the level of processing for conversion into an array of products, variety of additives are incorporated to increase the shelf life; to retain the nutritional value as well as to achieve higher standard of sensorial characteristics.

1. Introduction

Processed foods have become a way of life in the modern world. Manipulation of chemical and physical properties facilitated by modern food technology and followed by addition of food additives has created a plethora of innovative food products that offer consumers greater convenience, variety, safety, satiety and quality.
Food additives have been in use for centuries for preservation, for providing improved appearance or desired texture and flavour. Preservation of foods started with salting and smoking. The Egyptians used colours and flavours, Romans used saltpeter and in India, turmeric is being used. Similarly additives such as baking powder as a raising agent, thickeners for sauces and gravies and colours- synthetic as well as from natural sources are being used.
Today more than 2500 food additives have been in use mainly due to the spurt in the research activities in food science and technology that are aimed at providing different characteristic functions to foods. Out of these, about 1300 are the flavouring additives.

Importance of Food Additives

Food additives are chemicals, biochemical ingredients etc., which are added to food products for their technological benefits. These benefits may be to preserve the quality of food, to maintain and improve its appeal, to ensure its nutritional value and to provide innovations in new products with consumer appeal and satisfaction. Additives are also added to maintain uniform quality and to enhance quality parameters such as flavour, colour, texture etc. in large-scale production. They and their by-products ultimately become part of the food that is consumed and so they must be safe.

Additives may be direct additives, which are added deliberately to improve its sensory quality, nutritive value, stability, ease in processing and retention of quality during handling and retailing. There are also indirect additives, which are not added intentionally but get included into foods incidentally during handling, processing and packaging.

There are some guiding principles for the use of food additives. They should be justified for their technological effectiveness and purpose. They should be safe for use. There should be maximum adequate levels, absolutely necessary levels of usage and ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) properly evaluated while considering its safety and permitted usage levels in foods. They should not be added with the intention of misleading consumers about quality. They should also not significantly affect adversely the nutritional quality of food products.

Introduction

Food additives are substances of natural or synthetic origin, which are added to foods to serve a certain technological or sensory function. They are utilized in the preparation and processing of almost all types of food in order to give favorable attributes to the food. Additives are the substances which are of little or no nutritive value but are added to food to enhance its flavour, appearance or other favourable quality. They are used in the processing or storage of foods especially in the developed countries includes antioxidants, food preservatives, colouring and flavouring agents etc. Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or enhance its taste and appearance (Latiful Bari and Yeasmin 2018). Some additives have been used for centuries for example, preserving food by pickling with vinegar, salting, as with bacon, or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines. The use of food additives is not a modern-day invention; they have been used for centuries. The practice probably started when man first discovered that fire would cook and thereby preserve his meat. Later he realized that the addition of salt would preserve without cooking. Food preservation began when man first learned to safeguard food from one harvest to the next and by the salting and smoking of meat and fish. The Egyptians used colours and flavourings and the Romans used spices and colours for preservation and improving the appearance of foods. Thus, food additives have been used for centuries to enhance the variety of food products, to preserve, improve its taste and appearance, and provide a better mouth feel. Food additives afford us the convenience and enjoyment of a wide variety of appetizing, nutritious, fresh, and palatable food. Their quantities in food are small, yet their impact is great.

Food additive is any chemical substance that is added to food during preparation or storage. A food additive either becomes a part of the food or affects its characteristics for achieving a particular effect. For instance, substances that are used to enhance the appearance, texture, or to keep qualities of a food are considered food additives.