eChapters

Tropical fruit tree are important crops which supplement and improve the quality of diet. Many of the species have multi-purpose uses in that they produce non food products such as fuel, timber, fodder, medicines and industrial products for small holders. Harvesting from these trees enable rural people to provide nutrition for a balanced diet and generate income thus alleviate poverty. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L) can be found throughout much of the tropics, it is grown unattended in backyards, roadsides or waste lands. Tamarind is ideally suited for avenue plantings as a roadsides tree, in and around villages as a multipurpose species for agro-forestry system or as protective firebreaks for forest margins. It is a valuable timber species widely used for making furniture, tool handles, charcoal, oil mills, rice pounders and fuel wood. The leaves are an important source of food and herbal medicine and the edible pulp of ripe fruits is used as a flavouring agent in cooking, soups, jams, chutneys, sauces, pickles etc. The fruit pulp of tamarind forms the “Tamarind of Commerce”. The name tamarind is derived from the Arabic word ‘Tamar-u’l-Hind’ because the dark brown pulp of the fruit was thought to resemble dried dates. It was therefore called the Tamere-hindi or ‘date of India. The production of Tamarind in India was estimated 201000 tonees for year 2017-18 (Horticulture statistics, 2018), India is the world’s largest producer of tamarind products. It is particularly abundant in the India states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The production in India is mainly concentrated in the drier southern states and the produce is collected by the villagers and sold in the market. In India, the average production of tamarind pods per tree is 175 kg and processed pulp is 70 kg/tree (Kulkarni et al., 1993).

India is today the second largest producer of fruit and vegetable after China with a total annual production of 281.75 million tons in 2017-18. Fruit and vegetables are essential components of the human diet and nutrition constitute. Fruit and vegetable are also element of diversification in agriculture for additional income generating resource and employment generation area. Although India is the largest producer of fruit in the world, the production per capita is only about 100 g per day. Huge losses to the extent of 20 to 40% of the total production are reported due to lack of adequate infrastructure and transportation facilities and higher the transportation cost. Thus the per capita availability of fruits is further reduced to 60 -80 g per day which is almost half the requirement for a balanced diet. The fruit production in India has recorded a growth rate of 3.9%, whereas the fruit processing sector has grown at about 20% per annum. However, the growth rates have been extensively higher for frozen fruits and vegetables (121%) and dehydrated fruits and vegetables (24%).

Fruit and vegetables are mostly seasonal crops but they are demanded by consumers throughout the year. They are very highly perishable in nature, which is difficult to preserve for the longer period of time under ambient storage conditions. The low temperature storage retarded the activity of various biological and biochemical agents of spoilage and provides longer shelf life to the fruit and vegetables The temperature is brought down by taking out the heat with the help of mechanical refrigeration, This system is based on a liquid absorbing heat as it change to a gas. The more common mechanical refrigeration system use a refrigerant such as (Ammonia, Freon etc.,) takes out the heat from the chamber/ store as it is expand. The spoilage agents are microorganism such as (e.g., bacteria, yeast and molds etc.) and larva. Optimum storage temperature for most products is one slightly above the freezing point of the product. Some fruit and vegetables are particularly sensitive to storage temperature are susceptible to called storage disease when stored at temperature below as or above the critical temperature e.g.,

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, North Eastern States, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• It is the king of spices.

1.2. Economic importance

• Spiciness is due to the chemical compound piperine

• In foods, used as a spice.

• High in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

• May benefit for brain.

• May improve blood sugar control and lower cholesterol levels.

• May have cancer fighting properties.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• The oldest known beverage, tea is native of China (Between China and Burma) in South East Asia.

• Known to the Chinese as early as 2737BC, but it was a popular drink in England in 1664 AD.

• Original species, which produce tea, were C.assamica (Assam jats), C.sinensis (China jats) and their natural hybrid, C.assamica subspecies lasiocalyx (Indo China or cambod type).

• Chinese (Small leaf) tea - C. sinensis var. sinensis: Originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives

• Chinese Western Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea

• Indian Assam (Large leaf) tea- C. sinensis var. assamica: Originated from Camellia taliensis in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet

• Chinese Southern Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea: Hybridized with the closely related species Camellia taliensis

• Difference between Assam and China types

2.1. Chromosome number

• Basic chromosome number for the genus Coffea is n=11

• Coffea canephora-diploid (2n=2x=22)

• Coffea arabica (2n=4x=44 )

2.2. Origin and distribution

• Original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar and native population is derived from Ethiopia (Abyssinia Plateau) with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.

• From where, it was taken to Arabia in 11^th century.

• From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan in the 17^th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

• British planters established large coffee estates near Chikmagalur (Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wynad) and Shevoroys in 1830 and Nilgiris in 1839.

• Almost the entire production is shared by Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, smaller production in Andhra Pradesh, north eastern states and Madhya Pradesh.

• Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for 70% of total coffee production and 60% of the area

• Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing districts in Kerala.

10.1. Preservation through canning

• Process of sealing food stuffs hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long storage

• In 1804, Appert in France invented this process.

• Also known as appertizing.

• Saddington in England - First to describe a method of canning of foods in 1807.

• In 1810, Peter Durand obtained first British Patent on canning of foods in tin containers.

• In 1817, William Underwood introduced canning of fruits on commercial scale in U.S.A.

• Fruits and vegetables are canned in season when raw material is available in surplus.

• Canned products are sold in off season for better returns to grower.

10.1.1. Principles and process of canning

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.

Introduction

Wheat is an important cereal crop and is widely cultivated across the world. Wheat is consumed in different forms and major products are chapati, bread, biscuit, noodles and pasta products. Wheat has three groups of cultivated species namely bread, durum and dicoccum wheats. The common or bread wheats account for approximately 95% of world production. Nearly all of the remaining 5% cultivated varieties are durum wheats used for pasta products and couscous and dicoccums represent very little of the total wheat production. The bread wheat is divided into two broad classes based on grain texture; hard and soft. Hard wheats with high protein content and strong gluten are used for making bread and some noodles while soft wheats with lower protein content and weak gluten for biscuit, cakes and pretzels. Semi-hard wheats having some combinations of the above characteristics are utilized for making unleavened breads such as chapati, Asian steamed bread and some noodles. There can be large disparity within wheats of various classes; therefore to provide consistent quality, it is divided into grades. The grading is determined by the test weight, protein content, moisture and foreign material. The major wheat exporting countries have distinct grading patterns designed to provide wheat for specific purposes and consistent quality.

Vacreation : The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation.

Vacuum : The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling : A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus Brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Rad: It is the unit of radiation dose being equivalent to the absorption of 100 erg/g of irradiated material.

Radappertization: It means complete sterilization of foods by using irradiation. It is equivalent to commercial sterility. High dose of the radiation (25-45 kGy) is required for killing all microbes.

Cacti

Cacti belong to the family Cactaceae comprising of 130 genera and 2000 species and bear a complex organ, a cushion like structure spirally arranged over the stem called ‘areoles’ from which spines, hairs, flowers and shoots develop. In tribe, Pereskieae, the plants are leafy bushes or shrubby and characterized by areoles on the stem and by the typical flower borne in clusters, e.g. Maihuenia, Pereskia and Rhodocactus.

The possibility of making genetic changes in the laboratory in plants, animals and microbes used in food started almost 10,000 years ago. Along with natural changes taken place during the evolution totally different species have come into existence. This has helped in increased food production with better taste and nutrition. The losses caused by biotic and abiotic stresses from fungi and bacterial pathogens have reduced.

Hypothesis become theories and theories attain rank of laws after withstanding rigorous experimental tests. Feasibility of a process is confirmed in the laboratory. Qualitative and quantitative analyses give complete chemical picture of the substance. It is with these considerations in mind we proceed to learn what is there in a laboratory.

Perennial Flowers

Perennial flowers have a life span of more than one year and usually bloom during a specific time period every year during the growing season. These flowers are hardy and herbaceous. They need less maintenance, less water, and fewer pesticides than annuals. Perennials are easily used as ground covers, mixed with annuals, grown in containers and used as accents or specimen plants. Many perennials are short bloomers and are best mixed with others that bloom at different times or included with other landscape plants. These flowers are treasured by gardeners as heirloom plants and have proven themselves to be hardy enough to withstand weather and climate extremes. They are treasured in their dried form for beautiful and exotic dried flower arrangements.

Dried Fruits and Pods

The enchanting beauty and usage of fresh pods or fruits need not end up with the season. They are dried and preserved for years. A colorful array of choice dried fruits are very popular in dried arrangements. There are numerous dried fruits and pods used in potpourri and dried flower arrangements.

The technique of preserving fruit by the use of low temperature dates from the eighteenth century with the first use of ice house in 1750. Later in 1800s commercial cold storages have come up for the storage of perishables like meat, dairy and fruit products.  The main change took place in the cold store in recent years has been the introduction of multi temperature chambers with humidity control for specific products. Cold preservation can be either refrigeration or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at 4-7^ºC. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18^ºC or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

Transportation and distribution of fruits and vegetables are important stages   of post-harvest loss. In India,  transportation of perishable commodities is in the most precarious stage. For local market, the produce is brought either by bullock cart or tractor trollies. The long distance transportation is mainly by rails and trucks, which is very costly. The basic reason for preference to road transportation is that it takes short transit period.

Abstract

Determination of quality of wheat is very important because quality requirement of an individual product vary from one another. Flour quality can be defined as the ability of the flour to produce a uniformly good end product. Flour quality factors can be divided into two basic groups: those that are inherent in the wheat as a result of the genetic make up and the changes brought about by growing conditions; secondly those factors that might be altered during the process of converting wheat into flour Wheat flour constituents play an important role in determining the quality of flour. The flour quality for baking could be assessed by measuring the physical, chemical and rheological characteristics.

Abstract

Wheat gluten consists mainly of gliadin and glutenin polypeptides. During mixing gliadin and glutenin proteins interact to form a unique viscoelastic gluten network, which is envisaged as being necessary for holding the gases and for producing a light porous crumb textured bread. Recent work has confirmed that the elastic properties of gluten are due to the glutenin fraction, whilst the viscous properties are attributed to the gliadin fraction. Equal amount of these two major protein components of wheat gluten is required for achieving the desired bread quality, but variation in the composition and physical properties of the glutenin polypeptides appear to be largely responsible for the differences in the gluten viscoelasticity and breadmaking potential among wheat cultivars. Recently, associations of gliadin polypeptides with breadmaking quality have also been reported. Using improved protein separation and purification techniques, physical methods and genetic engineering, we are beginning to understand the structure-functional relationship of wheat gluten proteins, but much remains to be explored in the years to come. 

Abstract

Consumers are now more conscious about quality and source of their foods. Attempts made to determine the quality of food materials are numerous, but most of them are destructive in nature. In recent years, nondestructive methods of quality evaluation have gained momentum and a considerable attempts have been made to develop them. This paper describes application of these non-emerging technologies: magnetic resonance imaging, x-ray computer tomography, near infrared spectroscopy and a few other important techniques for determination of different quality attributes with special emphasis on grain, and discusses their pros and cons for practical exploitation.

Abstract

The constant improvement in automation of bakery industry has placed higher demands on wheat. As a consequence bakery industry requires wheat possessing specific quality attributes. In view of this, there is need to produce good quality wheat not only for good chapattis but also for better bakery products viz., bread, biscuit, noodles, pasta products. New technologies are emerging which could be exploited for determining the Indian wheats for their suitability for various value added products. In the current investigation, 50 genotypes possessing low protein content (<10.5%) selected from a vast amount of breeding material were analysed for their biscuit making attributes. These lines were screened by actual baking test and alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) test keeping the standard prescribed for biscuit making qualities viz., low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC and larger diameter with larger spread factor of biscuit. Further with the help of Stable Micro Systems TA.HDi Texture Analyser the biscuits were analysed for hardness and crispness. Correlation coefficient among 8 quality traits suggested highly significant and positive correlation between sedimentation value and AWRC, biscuit diameter and spread factor, and biscuit hardness and fracturability, and significant negative correlation between biscuit diameter and its thickness. On the basis of findings, genotypes identified for biscuit making qualities may be used as donor for developing varieties suitable for biscuit making.

Abstract

Sunflower seeds of variety PSFH- 67 were obtained from the PAU seed farm. These seeds were cleaned with commonly used seed processing equipment. Samples were divided into 2 parts. One part was kept as such for taking the observations of feed (control) and the remaining part was passed through specific gravity separator for its refinement. The various fractions obtained were recovery (heavier, healthy seeds), middlings (intermediate, under size) and rejections (lightweight seeds, wevil eaten, foreign matter). The respective percentages of each fraction were computed. These graded fractions as well as the feed were packed in 2-kg cloth bags and stored under ambient conditions. Different quality parameters viz. moisture content, physical purity, percent germination, thousand grain weight and vigour index were recorded at 30 days interval from Jan, 2010 to Apr. 2010. The physical purity, moisture content, thousand grain weight, percent germination, root length, shoot length and vigour index were found to be higher in recovery and minimum for rejections while moisture content was highest for rejection compared to all other fractions. The physical purity remained more or less constant throughout the period of storage. The thousand-grain weight showed a rapid decrease during first month thereafter it remained constant. There was continuous decrease in percent germination with the period of storage irrespective of the treatment.

    1.    Nutrients : Chemical substances obtained from food and used in the body to provide energy, structural materials, and regulating agents to support growth, maintenance, and repair of the body’s tissues. Nutrients may also reduce the risks of some diseases.
    2.    Carbohydrate, fat, and protein are sometimes called macronutrients because the body requires them in relatively large amounts (many grams daily). In contrast, vitamins and minerals are micronutrients, required only in small amounts (milligrams or micrograms daily).
    3.    The international unit for measuring food energy is the joule, a measure of work energy. To convert kcalories to kilojoules, multiply by 4.2; to convert kilojoules to kcalories, multiply by 0.24.
    4.    Essential nutrients : Nutrients a person must obtain from food because the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient quantity to meet physiological needs; also called indispensable nutrients. About 40 nutrients are currently known to be essential for human beings. Energy-yielding nutrients: the nutrients that break down to yield energy the body can use:

    1.    Absorbance (A) - Defined as –log (1-a) = log (1/t), where ‘a’ is the absorbance and‘t’ the transmittance of a medium through which a light beam passes.

    2.    Absorption coefficient (a) - The relative decrease in the intensity of a collimated beam of electromagnetic radiation, as a result of absorption by a medium, during traversal of an infinitesimal layer of the medium, divided by the length traversed.

    3.    Acceleration due to gravity (g) - The standard value (9.80665 m/s2) of the acceleration experienced by a body in the earth’s gravitational field.

    4.    Acid - Historically, a substance that yields an H+ ion when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH< 7. In the Brönsted definition, an acid is a substance that donates a proton in any type of reaction. The most general definition, due to G.N. Lewis, classifies any chemical species capable of accepting an electron pair as an acid.

    5.    Acid dissociation constant (Ka) - The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid HA through the reaction HA + H2O1 A- + H3O+. The quantity pKa = -log Ka is often used to express the acid dissociation constant

    6.    Acyl groups - Groups formed by removing the hydroxy groups from oxoacids that have the general structure RC (=O) (OH) and replacement analogues of such acyl groups.

    7.    Adiabatic process - A thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system.

Nutraceuticals and Health Foods

    1.    According to the International Food Information Council (IFIC), functional foods are “foods or dietary components that may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition.”

    2.    Nutraceuticals : A product isolated and purified from foods that is generally- sold in medicinal forms are usually associated with food. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease (Coined originally by Stephen DeFelice in 1989, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine, USA).

    3.    The International Life Sciences Institute of North America (ILSI) has defined functional foods as “foods that by virtue of physiologically active food components provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition

    4.    Health Canada defines functional foods as “similar in appearance to a conventional food, consumed as part of the usual diet, with demonstrated physiological benefits, and/or to reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions.”

Food Processing Technology

    1.    The transition from solid to fluid and back is known as a phase transition and this is important in many types of food processing (e.g. water to water vapour in evaporation and distillation and dehydration; water to ice in freezing and freeze drying or freeze concentration or crystallisation of fats.
 
    2.    Phase transition takes place isothermally at the phase transition temperature by release or absorption of latent heat, and can be represented by a phase diagram.

    3.    A second type of transition, known as glass transition, takes place without the release or absorption of latent heat and involves the transition of a food to an amorphous glass state at its glass transition temperature.

    4.    The transition is dependent on the temperature of the food, time, and the moisture content of the food.

    5.    The density of a material is equal to its mass divided by its volume and has units of kgm^-3

Food Packaging

    1.    Food packaging : A wrap, pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle and jar are some of the many forms of packaging that contain food products. It must contain a food product as well as protect and preserve it for a specific length of time. Each package must, by law, display product information for the consumer.

    2.    Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is an economical material with low WVTR; however, it has high permeabilities to flavours/volatiles, poor grease resistance and are limp.
 
    3.    High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is stiffer, more translucent and has better barrier properties but needs higher temperature for sealing.

    4.    A copolymer of polyethylene and poly vinyl alcohol, and EVOH has outstanding gas barrier properties especially when dry.

    5.    High-density polyethylene is stiff, strong, tough, resistant to chemicals and moisture, permeable to gas, easy to process, and easy to form. It is used to make bottles for milk, juice, and water; cereal box liners; margarine tubs; and grocery, trash, and retail bags.

    6.    Low-density polyethylene is flexible, strong, tough, easy to seal, and resistant to moisture. Because low-density polyethylene is relatively transparent, it is predominately used in film applications and in applications where heat sealing is necessary. Bread and frozen food bags, flexible lids, and squeezable food bottles are examples of low-density polyethylene.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System

1. Identify hazards
 
 It is important to be able to identify the possible microbiological, chemical and physical hazards that can occur at every stage of the food business – from growth, processing, manufacture, storage and distribution, until the point where it is sold to the customer and eaten.

    ·    Microbiological Hazards : Any bacterium, virus, or protozoan that is capable of causing illness and that grows or may be carried on food. Well-known examples of bacteria are Campylobacter, Listeria and Salmonella. The most likely food-borne viruses are the Norwalk type viruses. Giardia is an example of a protozoan that may be food borne. It is important to have some understanding of the risks associated with different types of microbiological hazards.

    ·    Chemical Hazards : Examples include excessive or toxic amounts of heavy metals, chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, vitamins, minerals, preservatives, disinfectants, detergents and cleaning compounds. Some hazards may be naturally present such as in green potatoes or taro and rhubarb leaves.

    ·    Physical Hazards : Objects that get into food, or are already present in food, may cause illness, injury or distress to the person eating it. Some examples are glass, metal fragments etc. Other contaminants such as hair or insects may be offensive but not necessarily a danger to health. They should nonetheless be considered and controlled

1. Food Labelling

Food labelling is the primary means of communication between the producer and seller of food on one hand, and the purchaser and consumer on the other.

Basic Terminology in Food labelling

‘‘Food” means any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption, and includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance which has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of “food” but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances used only as drugs.

‘‘Ingredient” means any substance, including a food additive, used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and present in the final product although possibly in a modified form.

INTRODUCTION

EGGS : Eggs and egg products constitute an important part of family meals. The economic importance of the egg to agriculture and industry, its multiple uses in the preparation of many food products, and its excellent nutritive value have stimulated scientific scrutiny into the nature of the egg.

STRUCTURE : The chief parts of the egg are the yolk, the albumin (the white), and the shell and the shell membranes. The yolk is more complex structurally than may be thought at first glance. At the very center is a light coloured structure called the white yolk. The vitelline membrane serves as the enclosure or sac for the yolk. The strength of this membrane is important when yolks and whites needs to be separated in cookery. Two important rather twisted membraneous structures extend from opposite sides of the yolk into the white.

Materials Required

Fruit juice/ pulp, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, bottling and sealing facilities, hand refractometer, homogenizer etc.  

Procedure

    1.    Extract the juice as discussed in previous exercise.
    2.    Filter the fresh or preserved juice through muslin cloth.
    3.    Calculate the quantities of juice, sugar, water, acid (if required), preservatives, colour, essence etc. required for preparation of a known quantity of                      squash as per FPO specifications.
    4.    Prepare the beverage as directed by instructor
    5.    Pack the beverage in bottles 
    6.    Seal the bottles and label them
    7.    Take out one of the bottles and measure its TSS and titratable acidity.

10.1    Respiration
    
10.2    Effect of Ethylene on Ripening
    
10.3    Transpiration Loss
    
10.4    Postharvest Biochemistry of Banana
    
10.5    Postharvest Pathology of Banana

11.1    Maturity Indices
    
11.2    Harvesting and Field Handling
    
11.3    Packhouse Operations
    
11.4    Packaging
    
11.5    Precooling

Introduction

Fresh fruits and vegetables are known for their nutritional and relishing nature. But, their fast perishability and season wise availability make them unavailable for a longer time. To enjoy and get benefited from their unique taste and nutritional value they are further preserved or converted into some value-added products such as jam, jelly, candies, juices, minimally processed fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, pickles etc. There are techniques which are developed to preserve them while in fresh and also when they are made into value-added products. Some require only one technique and other requires more than one in combination so that the product can be preserved for a longer period and available to maximum population even after their period of production/availability is completed.

1. Introduction

Osmotic dehydration is a useful treatment of dehydration compared to the other dehydration processes, as other dehydration processes bring adverse and irreversible changes in physical and nutritional status of food material. Recently in many studies it was found out that since plant membranes are semi-permeable in nature, not only moisture but transfer of solute from osmotic solution to the food material also takes place. Another kind of transfer which was also noticed is the leaching of micronutrients from the cells of food to the osmotic solution, but the amount being very low, this transfer can be neglected. (Mayor et al., 2006). The mass transfer kinetics was studied for different food materials (Hawkes and Flink, 1978). Effect of different variables such as pressure and temperature were also studied (Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998). The effective diffusivities for both water loss and solute gain can be calculated by using various methods which gives the rate of diffusion of solute and moisture for the food material. The finding of solute gain and leaching of micronutrients pointed the requirement of maintaining the osmotic dehydration process, which could be done by maintaining the process variables of osmotic dehydration. Impact of various process variables on osmotic dehydration and their best levels at which maximum water loss and minimum solute gain could be obtained had to be calculated out. For this purpose, optimization of process variables through response surface methodology (RSM) could be best utilized (Uddin et al. , 2004). RSM is a statistical tool which gives the random combinations of input variables to give the best output result as required. Various works have been done on optimization of process conditions of osmotic dehydration taking different samples of foods. In this study, bamboo shoot species (Bambusa balcooa) was taken as sample for osmotic dehydration to optimize the process variables for osmotic dehydration of bamboo shoots using salt as osmotic agent followed by calculation of effective diffusivity of water and solute during osmotic dehydration of bamboo shoot.

1. Introduction

Cherry peppers (Capsicum frutensis var. cerasiforme) which is locally known as dallae khorsani, is one of the important cash crops of Sikkim and Darjeeling hills. They are small, round shaped, fleshy and heavily seeded. They are green in color in early stage of fruiting and turn red when fully matured. It is an excellent source of vitamin A and C, which are important antioxidants (Howard et al., 1994). Cherry peppers are an ideal size for pickling or brining. Its hotness ranges from moderately mild to very high.

Due to its high moisture content (about 85% w. b. ), shelf life of cherry pepper is limited to 7 - 10 days. This makes it rare and costly during the off season. Hence, preservation of cherry peppers is of considerable importance both to the farmers as well as to the consumers. Drying is one of the oldest methods for preservation of cherry peppers to make it available throughout the year. To increase shelf life of chilies, drying up to 10 % moisture content (dry basis) is required which is accepted in export market.

For drying chillies, sun and hot air drying are the most common drying method used. However, due to the prolonged drying time of 16-48 h, the quality of the dried chillies is reduced (Kim et al., 2002). Many researchers paid more attention to innovative techniques such as short and medium-wave infrared radiation drying (SMIR) which not only maintain product quality, but also increase the drying rate. Moreover, infrared drying could save up 50% energy compared to convective drying (Nowak & Lewicki, 2004). The ability of infrared radiation to penetrate and heat the inner layers results in higher rate of heat and mass transfer (Ginzburg, 1969).

1. Introduction

Biopolymers nowadays are grabbing a nice place in packaging industries replacing synthetic polymers. The most important advantage of biopolymer over synthetic polymers is that they are biodegradable and can be developed from agricultural or food processing wastes. Among the wide variety of materials currently used in food packaging, polymers have taken a major share because of their versatility and advantageous performance (Valdés et al., 2014). However, most polymers used for food packaging are not biodegradable or compostable and therefore represent an increasingly serious end-of-life disposal problem worldwide. Although food package stability during the shelf-life of the product is an advantage, it turns into a disadvantage when the packages enter the post-use phase.

1. Introduction

Citrus is a common term and genus (Citrus) of flowering plants in the Rue family, Rutaceae. Citrus fruits are non-climacteric and respiration slowly declines and the production and release of ethylene is gradual. India ranks sixth in the production of citrus fruits in the world. Citrus wastes typically are about 45- 50% of the weight of citrus original and the percentage of waste to 30-50% for vegetables and fruits in general. Natural colour plays a significant role in determining the degree of consumer acceptance of the product. In addition, carotenoids (vitamin A precursor) have high nutritional values which are important for human nutrition.Francis and Isaksen (1988) stated that carotenoids play a very important role for extraction as for protection of health against cancer, cardiovascular and eye disease and as anti-oxidant. Carotenoids play important roles in human nutrition through their provitamin A activity, but also by acting as antioxidants, for prevention of age-related macular degeneration or skin protection against UV radiation. The antioxidant capacity of carotenoids was proved for pure compounds as well as for plant extracts and food. The main objective of this research work is extraction, determination and identification of natural colorants from different citrus wastes (citrus peel). Also to study the effects of pH and oxygen on the stability of extracted pigments and determination of the specific carriers for the extracted pigments using solid matrices (starch, dextrin, arabic gum and flour).

1. Introduction

Milk is considered to be an adequate source of valuable macro nutrients, fat, protein, lactose. Vitamins and micronutrients making it a wholesome food. It can serve as an excellent carrier product for extra nutrient and if enriched or fortified it can satisfy the nutritional needs of the population. Soybean is an excellent source of low cost protein and has been an important nutritional component and medical investigation have revealed the great potential of soy foods for lowering blood cholesterol levels and the incidence of heart disease and cancer. The dry soybean contains roughly 40 % protein, 20% oil and 35% soluble (sucrose , raffinose, stachyose, etc. ). Aqueous extract of soya is an ideal substitute of animal milk for people suffering from allergic, gastrointestinal and other diseases peculiar to elderly people liu et al. (2004). Soymilk obtained by aqueous extraction from whole soybeans is a well known food product that is growing in popularity in many areas of the world (Hauman,1984). Soy milk is low in fat, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, and riboflavin, but high in iron, thiamin, and niacin in comparison with cows’ milk. Soy milk contains higher amount of protein than buffalo milk and is deficient in sulfur containing amino acids. Soya milk is used in various products like paneer, yoghurts , cheese, tea and coffee whiteners , shrikhand, rasogolla and various indigenous milk sweets, confectionary, etc (Kale et al., 2012, Chang et al., 2005) also reported that intake of fermented soymilk improves the ecosystem intestinal tract by increasing the amount of probiotics. During the last years, soy beverages consumption has gradually increased due to their significant concentration of health promoting compounds, such as iso flavones.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. ) a member of the family Moraceae is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world. India is the second biggest producer of the fruit in the world and is considered as the motherland of jackfruit. The jackfruit is native to parts of South and Southeast Asia and is believed to have originated in the rainforests of Western Ghats of India and is cultivated throughout the low lands in South and Southeast Asia. Major jackfruit producing countries are Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. There are 100-500 seeds in a single fruit (Sidhu, 2012). It is composed of rind, edible bulbs of yellow-flesh and seeds. The ripe fruits are eaten or processed into snacks and canned products. Seeds make up around 10 to 15% of the total fruit weight (30-365/ fruit) and have high carbohydrate and protein contents (Ocloo et al., 2010). Mostly the seeds, rind and strands are discarded as waste. So, the seed, rind and strand flour can be an alternative intermediatory product, which can be stored and utilized, both for value addition and to blend with other grain flours without affecting the functional and sensory profile of the final product.

1. Introduction

Banana is having number of species and belongs to genus Musa of the family Musaceae. Bananas are produced in large quantities in tropical and subtropical areas. World production of Musa in 2003 was estimated at 102 million MT of which about 68% was classified as bananas and 32% as plantains (FAO, 2003). For growing banana need special climate and they are mainly produced in developing countries P (Zhang et al., 2005). The crop is of major importance to the people in the growing. The largest producer of banana is India (27%) and other countries are Ecuador, Brazil, Indonesia, Philippines and China etc. Ecuador (42. 3%), Colombia (24. 7%), Philippines, Dominican Republic, Belgium, Italy, Peru, France, Netherland, Germany are the top exporter countries in 2009.

Banana is a botanically a berry require a warm, humid, frost-free climate with optimum temperatures between 22 and 31°C. In several report it was found that banana plant die in ground level at below temperature -2°C. Primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is isoamyl acetate which is also called as banana oil. Banana is highly energetic food and rich in potassium, sodium, phosphorus, chlorine, magnesium, sulphur, silicon, calcium; and the vitamins: A, B1, B2, C and B3 (niacin). Banana helps in lowering cholesterol, enhances liver function, regulate heart rhythm and disease, decrease the risk of stroke, regulate Bowel movement, helps keep blood pressure under control and helps in weight loss.

1. Introduction

King chilli belongs to the genus Capsicum and species chinense, which is world famous for its heat content. King chilli measures 60 to 85 mm (2. 4 to 3. 3 inches) long and 25 to 30 mm (1. 0 to 1. 2 inches) wide with a red, yellow, orange, or chocolate color. The plant came into limelight when it was announced as the hottest chilli in the world in 2006 (Baruah et al., 2014). The people of the North-eastern India use the fruits of King chilli in different food formulations like flavouring curries due to its high-quality fragrance and pungency and also for various medicinal treatments like rheumatism, arthritis, gastritis, ankylosing spondylitis, digestive diseases (Sarwa et al., 2012) and to reduce chronic congestion (Raktim and Changkija, 2009). It is also used as a bird, animal and insect repellent as well as a biochemical pesticide. The extremely hot or burning sensation of chilli is due to the presence of capsaicinoids found only in Capsicum (Hoffman et al., 1983).

In northeastern India, King chilli has been cultivated in a traditional manner since time immemorial and there exists a considerable amount of genetic variability among the landraces (Raktim and Changkija, 2009). The pharmaceutical applications of capsaicinoids are attributed to their analgesic, antiarthritic, anticancer and antioxidant properties. In fact, capsaicin has been at the centre of intense research for elucidating the basis of its pharmacological properties and exploiting the therapeutic potential (Prasad et al., 2005). It has also been reported that capsaicin inhibits the growth of prostate cancer cells (Mori et al., 2006). The antioxidative capacity of chilli is higher than ginger, garlic, mint and onion (Shobana et al., 2000), which may play an important role in the process of chemoprevention (Yu et al., 2002).

1. Introduction

Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae sp. ), a high altitudinal, thorny, temperate, deciduous, dioecious, actinorhizal shrub or small tree belonging to the Kingdom-Plantae, Clades-Angiosperms, Eudicots and Rosids, Order- Rosales, Family-Elaeagnaceae and native to Eurasean Countries like India, China, Russia, Nepal, Pakistan, etc. (Barik et al., 2016). SBT is having tolerance towards a wide group of pests and insects, can grow in extreme nutrient deficient conditions and temperature range of -40 °C to 40 °C. It contains more than 190 reported invaluable phytochemicals and has the potential for multidimensional use as food, fodder, medicine, fuel, and conservation of soil and bio diversity (Qinxiao and Hongyan, 2003; Barik et al., 2016). SBT berries, leaves, stem and root barks also contain nutrients and bioactive compounds which mainly include lipids, sugars, amino acids, organic acids, fatty acids, carotenoids (β-carotenes, lycopene, zeaxanthin), tocopherols (α β, γ, δ), sterols (ergosterol, campesterol), Vitamins (A, C, E and K), phenolic and flavonoid compounds (gallic acid, caeffeic acid, ferulic acid, isorhamnetin, kaemferol, quercetin, myricetin) and isoprenols (Tiitinen et al., 2005; Anderson et al., 2009; Barik et al., 2016). All these studies are primarily based on the prominent SBT species Hippophae rhamnoides. However, Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae salicifolia) of North East India is an underutilized non-conventional plant and its potential is not yet fully explored. Very scanty literatures are available on the identification, documentation and preliminary qualitative phytochemical characterization of SBT from North East India (Basistha et al., 2010; Pradhan et al., 2015). But there is no any report on systematic qualitative phytochemical characterization of all the plant parts of SBT from North East India in general and SBT of Arunachal Pradesh in partcular.

Several attempts have been made to detect the biopotentials of microorganisms with reference to their ability to produce various enzymes with a view to use them in industrial processes and bioremediation applications. Enzymes are increasingly used as a new route to synthesize food ingredients such as flavours, emulsifiers, sweeteners, food additives, nutrients. With the advent of genetic engineering, a wide range of enzymes has become available on a large scale and this has increased the scope of enzyme technology.

MICROBIAL ENZYMES: Enzymes are proteinaceous complex organic catalysts of biological origin and vital constituents of cells. Microbes produce a variety of enzymes, intracellular and extracellular enzymes. Most of the microbial enzymes produced for commercial usage are extra cellular enzymes. Extracellular enzymes are secreted outside the cell and hydrolyze polymeric substances. Amylases and proteases are enzymes of economic importance. At present over 60 enzymes are in commercial use, of which three-quarters are hydrolytic enzymes. Commercial production of microbial enzymes utilizes a variety of fungi, yeasts and bacteria. The composition of the medium, genetic stability of the microbial strain and physical and chemical factors of fermentation influence the production of a particular enzyme.

Enzymes catalyze a variety of reactions during processing and preservation of food products and form a large group of processing aids. Food industry utilizes enzymes in the production of bakery items, dairy products, fruits and vegetables juices and products, tenderization of meat, modification of oils and fats, flavour production and preservation of food products. Enzymes have also found use in the manufacture of ingredients like glucose, high fructose syrup, citric acid, colour and flavour constituents.

15.1 CONTAMINATION

Milk is sterile at secretion in the udder, but contaminated by bacteria when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow. Milk is subject to contamination from the animal and adjacent areas. Bacteria found in manure, soil and water may enter milk from these sources. Certain diseases may be transmitted through milk, from a cow. It is essential that cows producing milk should be free from any contagious or infectious disease. Bovine tuberculosis comes from consumption of milk of tuberculous cows. Tuberculosis, brucellosis, mastitis and actinomycosis are the human disease transmitted through milk. The disease producing bacteria may find their way into milk and cause infectious diseases in children and adults.

COMMON BACTERIA IN MILK: The common bacteria found in milk are: Rickettsia, Coxiella burnetii, lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus thermophilus, aerobic rods, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, anaerobic bacteria, Clostridium butyricum .

Sources of Microbial contamination: Milk contains relatively few bacteria when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow. Milk is subject to contamination from the animal udder, skin and adjacent areas barn yard, milk utensils, milkers. Bacteria found in manure, soil and water may enter milk from these sources.

Fungi cause diseases in plants and animals and in such diseases, the fungi actively grow and invade the body of their hosts. There is another means by which fungi can cause harm is growing on stored food material that we consume and produce toxic metabolites referred to as mycotoxins (means fungus poisons). Food is particularly susceptible to fungal infections at almost every stage of storage or production. Mycotoxin is toxic substance produced by a fungus. The term is restricted to toxins produced by fungi growing in human foods or animal feeds. The growth of the fungi in food grains leading to physical spoilage of grains and toxin production is a serious problem in developing countries. Their occurrence in food and feed has both economic and health implications, as the toxic effects in human beings, animals and other living systems were well established. The effects of poisoning by mycotoxin are referred to as mycotoxicoses.

Yeasts

Yeasts are non filamentous, unicellular fungi that are typically spherical or oval. Like molds, yeasts are widely distributed in nature; they are frequently found as a white powdery coating on fruits and leaves.

A five-kingdom classification system fails to classify viruses because they are not considered to be living. They neither reproduce independently nor utilize energy

General properties of virus

Viruses differ fundamentally from other classes of microorganism in that:

1.They are ultramicroscopic disease-producing entities.

2.They are simple in structure, basically composed of nucleic acid wrapped up in a protein coat.

3.The genome nucleic acid is either DNA or RNA , either single stranded or double stranded, but never both

4.Viruses have no metabolic activity of their own and lack enzyme systems and other constituents fundamental for independent growth and multiplication.

5.They do not posses ribosomes, nor transfer RNA and enzymes required for synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins.

6.Viruses are incapable of growth and division.

Abstract

Designer foods are known by various names like medical foods, fortified foods, nutritional foods, nutraceutical foods, pharma foods etc. These foods are nutritious, maintain health and prevent diseases. Such foods must possess characteristics like modified composition; limit the presence of certain potentially harmful components and include certain desirable ingredients either naturally or by intentional addition. The term designer food emerged some years ago to describe foods tailored to specific concentration and proportion of nutrients that are important to health. These are designed and produced by using different approaches. The term ‘designer foods’ is subjected to change based on nutritional labelling regulations, new developments, consumer perceptions and expectations. Grain improvement through biotechnology emphasizes crop upgrading with a specific challenge to manipulate the endosperm composition in order to improve its intrinsic properties for diet and health. Breeding fruits with higher bioactive compounds for disease resistance and improved composition have stimulated interest in the nutraceutical and processing aspects of the fruits Nutritive and genetic interventions to alter milk composition for specific health and processing opportunities are gaining importance in dairy biotechnology. Designer eggs having modified fat provide choices with different nutritional benefits. The options suggested for designer meat and meat products are through production practices, post-harvest procedures and reformulation techniques. All these features of designer foods will be presented with suitable examples.

Abstract

Research has demonstrated that nutrition plays a crucial role in the prevention of chronic diseases as most of them can be related to diet. Functional food enters the concept of considering food not only necessary for living but also as a source of mental and physical well-being contributing to the prevention and reduction of risk factors for several diseases or enhancing certain physiological functions. One of the most clear objectives of the study of functional foods is to identify and validate biological markers in order to understand the interaction mechanisms between the food component and a body function. Epidemiologic and laboratory data from previous studies suggests that diets rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with a reduced risk of various types of cancers. The reduction in cancer risk may be attributed to the abundance of a family of specific compounds referred to as anthocyanins, which are found in various berries. Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments responsible for the blue, purple, and red color in many plant tissues Strawberry is one of “super fruits”, since they can form a significant component of the diet and are a potential resource of functional foods and nutraceuticals due to their antioxidant capacity and nutritional quality. Strawberries contain high levels of anthocyanins and they are also well liked by consumers. Popularity of strawberries in the consumer market makes them an ideal focus for chemoprevention studies. Strawberries are a rich source of phytochemicals (anthocyanins, catechins, the flavonols quercetin and kaempferol, and ellagic acid) and an important source of essential nutrients (ascorbic acid, potassium, folic acid, carotenoids, B-vitamins). Strawberries are consistently ranked among the top food sources of polyphenols and antioxidant capacity; the preventive and therapeutic health benefits of strawberries may be attributed to the synergistic effects of these bioactives and the nutrients contained in the fruit. These bioactive photochemical contribute the major health-promoting function. Strawberries have shown a remarkably high scavenging activity toward chemically generated radicals, thus making them effective in inhibiting oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. Antioxidant activity of strawberries could contribute to the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. Hence strawberry can be used as a vital and indispensible functional ingredient for the development offunctional foods and nutraceuticals.