eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Vegetables and fruits have many similarities with respect to their composition, methods of cultivation and harvesting, storage properties and processing. In fact many vegetables are considered fruits in the true botanical sense. But the difference between the two is that vegetables are derived from various parts of plants e.g. roots, leaves, stems, buds and so on whereas, fruits are the mature ovaries of plants with their seeds. The edible position of most fruits is the freshly part of the pericap or vessel surrounding the seeds. The other difference between the two is that those plant items that are generally eaten with the main course of a meal are often considered to be vegetables, whereas those that are eaten alone or as a dessert are considered as fruits. This is the distinction made by food processors, certain marketing laws, and the consuming publics.

1. Introduction

Pectin is a polysaccharide present in the middle lamella of plant cell walls. The firmness and structure of the plant tissue are attributed to the presence of pectin in the middle lamella. The insoluble form of pectin is called protopectin and the soluble form is called soluble pectin (Kertez, 1951). Protopectin is abundant in green fruits and contributes to hardness of cell, where as soluble pectin is responsible for viscous nature of juice and pulp. Conversion of protopectin to soluble pectin results in loosening of the bonds between the cells and softening of the fruit tissues. Protopectin is reported to be hydrolyzed to pectin by enzyme action during ripening. Protopectin on restricted hydrolysis yields pectin or pectinic acid. Braconnot (1825) discovered pectin as the gelatinous principle of fruits.

1.    Introduction

2.    Materials for Boat Construction

3.    Engines and Propellers

4.    Fuel Saving

5.    Development of Computer Aided Designing (CAD)

6.    Type and Size of Boats
    
    6.1    Trawlers
    6.2    Otter trawlers
    6.3    Side trawlers
    6.4    Stern trawlers
    6.5    Freezer trawlers
    6.6    Purse seiners
    6.7    Long liners
    
7.    Fishing Equipment
    
    7.1    Echo sounders and sonars
    7.2    Global positioning system (GPS)
    
8.    Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)
    
    8.1    Advantages of the GMDSS over the current system
    8.2    Implementation of the GMDSS requirements
    8.3    The main types of equipment used in GMDSS
    
9.    Distress Alert Transmitters (DAT)
    
10.    Automatic Identification System (AIS)
    
11.    Handling Equipments
    
    11.1    Advances in deck machinery
    11.2    Automated long line system
    11.3    Automated squid jigging machines
    11.4    Net haulers
    11.5    Net drums
    11.6    Gantries
    11.7    Stern ramp
    
12.    Side Thruster
    
13.    Satellites and Remote Sensing
    
14.    Vessel Monitoring System (VMS)
    
References

1     Introduction

2     Bacterial Flora on Fish

3     Products of Bacterial Activity

4      Bacterial Flora of Fish Caught from Different Waters

5      Fish Spoilage and Bacterial Flora

6      Bacterial Contaminations
    
7      Bacterial Contamination of Harvested Fish
    
8      Growth of Spoilage Bacteria
    
9      Scombroid Poisoning
    
10      Microorganisms on Iced Fish
    10.1     Crustaceans
    10.2     Molluscs
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Bacteria of Public Health Significance in Fish Handling
    
3.    Sanitary and Hygienic Precautions to be Followed in Fish Handling
    3.1    Requirements for the fishing vessels
    
4.    Requirements for the Landing Sites/Auction Centres
    
5.    Requirements for the Processing Centres
    5.1     Use only potable water or clean sea water for washing fish
    5.2     Never put fish on sand or any unclean surface
    5.3     Lighting and ventilation
    5.4     Water supply
    5.5     Ice
    5.6     Utensils for fish handling
    5.7     Washing of utensils and fish contact surfaces
    5.8     Workers’ hygiene and health
    5.9     Rodent control measures
    5.10     Fly control measures
    5.11     Waste disposal
    5.12     Storage of toxic substances
    5.13     Toilet facilities
    
Acknowledgement
    
References

1. Introduction

The growing prevalence of obesity and obesity associated disorders as well as its impact on public health has received increased attention in recent years. As a result, obesity is now considered one of the world’s leading public health problems. A study published in the noted medical journal Lancet says India is just behind US and China in this global hazard list of top 10 countries with the highest number of obese people. The study - titled ‘Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013’ - used data collected by international bodies and organizations in various countries like India over three decades. China and India together accounted for 15 per cent of the world’s obese population, with 46 million and 30 million obese people, respectively. According to the study, the number of overweight and obese people globally increased from 857 million in 1980 to 2. 1 billion in 2013. This is one-third of the world’s population.

With lifestyle disorders forcing more and more people to reel under excess body weight, even relatively younger people are developing joint disorders and knee pain. Excessive weight is associated with a series of health problems, including blood pressure, diabetes, and cardiovascular ailments. Therefore there in an urgent need to envision effective anti-obesity strategies through effective interventions.

Abstract

Seed technology deals with the various aspects of seed- right from production to make it readily and timely available to the end users. The advancement in seedtechnology was realizedlong back and itwas considered equally important to the development of new technology (varieties). Considering the importance of seed as well as variability among seed of different crop species or even in same crop species, the researchers initiated work and focused their direction of research accordingly which resultedinto worthy achievements. Brief overviews of the advancements made in seed technology are being discussed in this chapter. However, efforts are still on to get rid of problems of seed technology in order to strengthen the seed industry, which makes the highest contribution to rural development, probably among all industries.

Abstract

Water scarce state Rajasthan is without efficient and effective management. Water, when at surface is cheaper and like free commodity to use. Most of it gets evaporated rapidly due to aridity. There is no water during summers and drought years. This is now critical time to rethink and review our planning and policies and make it ground water oriented instead of completely surface water based. Ground water management should be the thrust area and key issue. There is need to conserve andharvest each drop ofwater especially for recharge to ground water. Utilize the augmented ground water resources as crisis management during long dry spells. Also, enforcement of regulatory measures, creating awareness among masses and participatory approach ofmanagement are the key factors for ensuring sustainable availability of water resources.

Abstract

Indian is rich biodiversity and availability of a variety plants of enhances the interest of scientist for the possible use of plant products as natural herbicides. The emphasis should be to collect the information about such plants from the concerned people who have traditional knowledge about the use of these herbs and then to study scientifically to arrive at conclusions. The study of compounds produced by a plant which inhibit or stimulate the germination and the development of other plants is important for understanding the mechanisms of the ecologicalinteraction. Therefore, there is continuing need to develop and release new phytotoxic chemicals that preserve the environment and enable a more efficient control of weeds, improving crop yield and quality. Ageratum conyzoides a herb traditionally used for treatment of many diseases, releases some potential allelochemicals and other chemicals to the environment which inhibit the germination and growth of neighboring plants. A complete study of its potential allelochemicals may be useful in biological control for sustainable agriculture.

Abstract

Bioinformatics is a field of science which studies biology, computer science, and information technology. The ultimate goal is to obtain useful information by data acquisition, analysis and interpretation of sequences data. In the current decade, a huge volume of sequence data is stored in the data bank due to global genome initiatives of many organisms. Management and understanding of the genome data cannot be possible without the bioinformatics tools. A large number of tools and softwares packages are available either commercial or freely online for the bioinformatics applications. The use of bioinformatics tools enhances the research capability for crop improvement through genome sequencing, database management, assembly, alignment, primer designing, markers development, genes prediction and annotation, gene expression, phylogenetics, protein structure identification, metabolic pathways analysis and many other applications.

1.    Irrotational flow is

(a) Incompressible fluid with shear

(b) Newtonian fluid

(c) Incompressible fluid with no shear

(d) Non-Newtonian fluid

2.    Irrotational flow is also called

(a) Potential flow

(b) Turbulent flow

(c) Laminar Flow

(d) None of these

3.    Bernoulli’s equation is based on the assumption that

(a) The flow is non-viscous, uniform and steady

(b) The flow is steady, non-viscous, incompressible and irrotational

(c) The flow is uniform and incompressible

(d) None of the above

India is emerging as a food power in the international trade of foods. The immense un-tapped potential in the food processing sector in India has to be still exploited. It has been termed as ‘sun rise industry’ for improving agricultural productivity and enhancing food availability. The terms food quality management and food safety have assumed large dimensions today. In the international trade of foods, specifications have been laid down on the levels of harmful substances (chemical or biological origin), protocols have been documented on their detection and quantification in foods. We have to meet these international standards to export processed food and earn foreign exchange. The future of Indian food processing sector is bright provided it improves the quality of its products as per international standards.

Food poisoning is an acute illness resulting from the ingestion of injurious agents such as chemical, heavy metals, parasites, microbial toxin, wild species of mushroom in food. Food poisoning is commonly caused by certain bacteria or their toxins, which are the poisonous proteins that these bacteria produce. Food borne pathogens are potential global problem, more than 90 per cent of the cases of food poisoning are caused by bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Shigella dysenteriae, Bacillus cereus and enteropathogenic E. coli. These bacteria are commonly found in many raw foods. Generally a large number of food poisoning bacteria must be present to cause illness. In most of these food poisonings, the food serves as a vehicle of transmission. The role of food here is significant, since the product not only may permit the survival of the pathogens, but also may provide a suitable medium for the rapid multiplication of microbes and production of toxin. A more serious aspect of microbial contamination is the possibility of serious health hazards due to potential pathogenic organisms gaining entry into foods due to low standards of hygiene and sanitation.

Food poisoning may be due to food intoxication or food infection. Food intoxication and food infection differ in many characteristics (Table 17.1). Food intoxication refers to food borne illness caused by the ingestion of a microbial toxin preformed in the ingested food (Botulism). The most serious food poisoning caused by toxins is botulism, an often fatal disease that results from eating improperly canned foods containing the bacteria Clostridium botulinum. Classically, food intoxication is caused by the growth of Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus in food. Clostridium botulinum produces a neurotoxin, while Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus cultures produce enterotoxins in food.

Size shape and Appearance of Bacterial cells

Bacteria vary significantly in their morphology, that is in their appearance. They range in size from 0.2 μm to1 μm in diameter and 1 μm to 10 μm in length. There are three basic shapes of cells :

1. Spherical

2. Rod-shaped

3. Spiral.

Abstract

Tremendous changes in lifestyle, eating habits and shifting rural habitations are causing an irreversible change that is leading to manifold multiplication of health problems and these health issues have attracted the attention of every segment of the society in the recent past. Today foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers. Due to increasing control over nutrition and health, consumers are becoming more proactive towards their health. In this regard, functional foods play an outstanding role and they are gaining public acceptance and there is great scope for value-added as well as health promoting food products in developing countries. Various terms have used for functional foods throughout the world such as designer foods, medicinal foods, nutraceuticals, therapeutic foods, superfoods, foodiceuticals, and medifoods. People are interested in foods which boost immune system, reduce the risk of diseases and improve health. The increasing demand of such foods can be explained by the increasing cost of healthcare, the steady increase in life expectancy, and the desire of older people for improved quality of their later years. Typically, a food marketed as functional contains added, technologically developed ingredients with a specific health benefit. These range of products cannot be truly classified as ‘food’ and a new hybrid term between nutrients and pharmaceuticals, ‘nutraceuticals’, has been coined to designate them. The development of functional foods involves the application of various food processing techniques such as microencapsulation of functional ingredients for controlled release, nanotechnology for the development of nanostructured (or nanotextured) food ingredients and delivery systems for nutrients and supplements etc. Inclusion of probiotic bacteria and probiotic supplements in various food systems has also become very popular and this is becoming a very vital sector in functional food market. Systematic RandD efforts are, therefore, required to develop health promoting foods for all segments of the society at affordable cost. Prior to promoting the developed health foods, it is of utmost importance to conduct clinical trials to ascertain safety and efficacy, and also establish appropriate regulatory framework for their distribution to masses. All these issues have been discussed in this paper and recommendations were drawn to formulate future research.

Abstract

Microencapsulation has found great applications in food business. However, the technology remains aloof from being fully exploited. Microcapsules offer food processors a way to shield sensitive food ingredients, mask or preserve flavours and aromas and conversion of volatile food components into easy-handled solid ingredients (like powders, capsules etc). A number of naturally occurring and synthetic polymeric materials have been identified so far that possess the entrapping property and are categorised as GRAS materials. Numerous techniques have been developed for using these entrapping materials to encapsulate the sensitive food ingredients. Controlled release of the food ingredients at proper place and right time could be therefore a key practicality that may be provided by microencapsulation. With strictly fine-tuned and stabilized release characteristic, this method adds worth to the merchandise. The areas of interest in this field include the development of alternative and inexpensive polymers that may be considered natural or mimic the properties of natural polymeric materials, like Gum Arabic, Gellan Gum, Gum Karaya, Gaur Gum and Gum Acacia. Limitations in many of the encapsulation techniques have occurred due to high value of raw materials and production. This review is effectively committed to the, properties of encapsulating agents along with the emphasis on different techniques used for encapsulation in the varied fields like food technology, pharmaceutical, commercial engineering and biotechnology.

Identification of enteric bacilli is of prime importance for controlling intestinal infections. This can be achieved by preventing contamination of food and water by a group of bacteria belonging to family – Enterobacteriaceae which are found in the intestinal tract of human beings and lower mammals. The microorganisms of this family are short, gram negative, non spore forming bacilli. Such common enteric bacteria are a) pathogens such as species of Salmonella and Shigella b) occasional pathogens like species of Proteus and Klebsiella and c) normal intestinal flora like species of Escherichia and Enterobactor.

Due to inadequate intakes of vitamins and minerals, half of the world's population suffers from micronutrient malnutrition. An adequate amount of wholesome as well as diverse foods are required for the proper growth and development. In addition to calories requirements, these foods should provide various nutrients. In India, ~70% of children do not get the required calories either due to lack of enough food or diverse food. This indicates that these children are also incapable of fulfilling their protein, minerals and vitamins requirements. Diets that lack diversity can be deficient in certain nutrients. Due to the micronutrient composition of the soil of a region, or because of the intrinsic insufficiency of the normal diet the staple foods of some region can lack particular nutrients. The individual plant foods are often deficient in certain nutrient components due to the varying level and composition of food nutrients in different food crops. Some crops are rich in one component but low in other. For example; legumes are usually high in protein, but deficient in essential amino acids like methionine whereas, wheat and rice are rich in carbohydrates but contain little essential amino acid such as lysine, iron, and lack provitamin A. Relying on a single food crop as major staple source of nutrients thus will not attain a nutritionally complete diet and result in malnutrition and deficiency diseases, which often occur in populations of developing countries, mainly due to poverty. Globally, over one billion people are undernourished and food security is a major issue with the world's population forecast reaching to nine billion by 2050.

Abstract

The increasing interest in polyphenolic compounds in industries has led to the exploration and exploitation of rich bio-compounds from natural sources, essentially plants and their by-products. Solid-liquid extraction is mostly applied for the recovery of these valuable compounds from plants. Since the extraction process is often difficult in a fresh matrix, a drying operation is needed to reduce the moisture content, and preserve the targeted valuable compounds. An uncontrolled drying operation will lead to product damage and hence, loss in quality, reason why, several studies have been carried out to understand and control the drying process. The present chapter aims to present some data on drying for bioactive compound recovery from plants and their by-products, mainly polyphenolic compounds. Our main interest is the mathematical tools used to model the drying process.

New Technique of Food Preservation

1. High Pressure Processing (HPP)

High Pressure Processing (HPP) is a method of food processing where food is subjected to elevated pressures (up to 87,000 pounds per square inch or approximately 6,000 atmospheres), with or without the addition of heat, to achieve microbial inactivation or to alter the food attributes in order to achieve consumer-desired qualities. Pressure inactivates most vegetative bacteria at pressures above 60,000 pounds per square inch. HPP retains food quality, maintains natural freshness, and extends microbiological shelf life. The process is also known as high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP) and ultra high-pressure processing (UHP).

‘Prunes’ is prepared from peach.

Arrak” liquor is prepared from date palm.

Hayane” variety of date palm suitable for juice making.

Kanji” is made from black carrot.

Kirschwascer” a wine prepared from cherry.

Shahi” variety of Litchi suitable for canning.

1.1 Importance

Perfumes, essential oils and aroma are some of the products which indicate religious values, living standards, personality development for personal use and adornment from years back. The Vedic literatures also indicate the presence of perfumes and aromatics and were used for religious purposes as well as medicinal purposes. The word perfume has been used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, “per fumum”, meaning through smoke. Perfumery has been one of the Indian arts and was a famous centre for perfume and perfume products. The essential oil means a class of volatile odoriferous oils, obtained from raw material of botanical source that impart the plant odour and other characteristic properties derived through distillation (usually with water or steam) or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. The oils extracted through expression are some time called “Expression oils”. The aromatic substances being used from the Vedic period are defined as those plants which possess odoriferous steam volatile constituent’s (essential oil) in them.

Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia and USA are the major producers of aromatic materials. China is becoming increasingly important as a primary source and a very large quantity of aromatics and flowers as raw material is available. European Union and Switzerland are the main world markets for aromatics and also has established as a largest consumer of essential oils. The world’s largest importer of aromatic materials is the USA followed by Japan. The latter accounts for about 10% of world demand especially for lemon, clove, orange, peppermint and cedar wood oil.

India exports essential oils of lemongrass, mint, sandalwood, palmarosa, cardamom, ginger and eucalyptus in adequate quantity under AGMARK certification. But, for a better export quality there is a need to study the customer requirements, quality assurance and standards to keep pace with International market, Total Quality Management (TQM) through adulteration detection and modern analysis techniques with economic marketing channels.

India possesses a number of resources as plant parts, ample land and varied climatic conditions with low production costs but the essential oil producers need to study the customer needs for a regular supply of best quality products at a competitive rates. Today, second important factor for successful competition is the quality assurance. The consumers, these days, are very much aware about the quality and safety of using perfumes, essential oils and other pharmaceutical products. The third most important point is the packaging which attracts the consumers most of the times. Proper packaging along with an attractive label is always a plus point for the marketing of any product. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) and Good Manfacturing Practices (GMP’s) are the quality assurance systems which continuously controls and regulate the quality production of commodities, needs strict enforcement. ISO 9000, TQM and ISO 14000 series are the some of quality management organizations, working for the development of quality standards.

Abstract

Meat is considered to be a highly perishable food commodity because of its biological composition. Thus, to extend its shelf life and maintain its nutritive value, there is an urgent need to find out alternatives for synthetic anti-microbial and anti-oxidants. This will not only serve the purpose of meat product manufacturer’s but will also satisfy the consumers’ demand for minimally processed meat products devoid of synthetic preservatives. This review discusses the natural antimicrobial and anti- oxidants sources viz., various essential oils, their composition and application in different meat and meat products. Essential oils from basil, rosemary, thyme, oregano, ginger, basilica, balm, coriander, rosemary and clove have exhibited a better potential to be used as an antimicrobial agent in meat and meat products. They owe their anti-microbial properties to the phenolic compounds present in them. They dislocate cell membrane and disrupt functionality of bacterial cell membrane and eventually leading to the release of intracellular components. However, essential oils are not widely used due to the pungent and intense aroma imparted to the food, thus there is still need to work out on the novel technologies which can not only increase food shelf life but at the same time, are sensorially acceptable to the consumers.

Abstract

Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or curd or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter or preservative has been added. It is the second largest dairy product prepared from milk and it is almost 35% of total milk production. Unfortunately, the producers or the middle- men involved in the ghee trade, tend to adulterate ghee with cheaper oils and fats like vegetable oils, animal body fats, hydrogenated fats and sometimes even the non-edible mineral oils, especially during lean season to earn more money. Recently, the problem of adulteration has assumed a very serious dimension. Such a situation has tarnished the image of dairy industry. Methods presently adopted by food law enforcing agencies to ensure the quality of ghee are mainly based on the physico- chemical constants, but all these methods have some limitations. So researchers are always in search of different innovative methods to check the quality of ghee.

Introduction

Over centuries, spices have been used as an important addendum for colour, flavour and preservation of foods. In addition, their medicinal and cosmetic utilities have been widely recognized (Purseglove et al., 1981; Srinivasan, 2005). All these benefits made them extremely desirable with an ever growing demand in the international market. India holds the title of the largest producer and exporter of spices with major share for pepper, capsicum, turmeric, ginger cardamom, seed spices, curry powders, spice oils and oleoresins. The other primary producers of spices includes China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Egypt, Turkey Brazil and Mexico while USA, Europe, Japan, East Asian and Middle East countries are their major importers.

Spices are made from diverse plant parts viz. rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits and seeds and hence its processing methods vary depending on the raw material. However, the basic unit operations namely harvest, pre-treatment, drying, cleaning, particle size reduction, packaging and microbial decontamination in sequence remains common for the production of most of the spices. Inappropriate conduct of basic unit operations often lead to high microbial load, aflatoxin contamination, losses of valuable compounds, change in sensory characteristics, physical damages and incorporation of contaminants in spice products (Table 1). Moreover, spices being natural products, they may be fraught with a large number of microorganisms including several pathogenic species of bacteria and fungus depending on the prevailing conditions in their cultivation areas. In addition, poor food sanitation awareness and practices in spice producing countries may worsen their microbiological safety. Although spices are nonperishable in nature due to their low moisture contents after drying, they may act as a source of microbial populations upon contact with moist food products with no further thermal treatment. The outbreak of ‘salmonellosis’ in Germany (1993) due to contaminated paprika and paprika-powdered potato chips is an example. The aforesaid disadvantages related to conventional spice production may confound their international trade unless desired objectives of food safety management schemes such as International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) are met. Moreover, international agencies have set standard to guarantee safe spices and augment business interests of their adherents. For example, both the European Spice Association (ESA, 2015) and American Spice Trade Association have set a maximum level of 1% w/w extraneous matter in spices (ASTA, 2017). These challenges associated with the conventional production system may be effectively addressed by preventive risk management strategy by which suitable control measures are enforced at earlier phases of food chain prior to consumption. The control measures must guarantee that the level of contamination has not exceeded the maximum permissible limit at every phase of spice production from farm to table.

Introduction

Food processing comprise of techniques employed to transform raw ingredients into final food product or to preserve the food product. Food processing industry as well as at domestic scale the food processing methods aim at providing processed food products for daily consumption by humans and animals. Food processing aims at increasing the shelf life, preserve, make nutritious or ready to eat foods, and getting the best quality final products. There are various techniques and methods which come under food processing such as drying, dehydration, fermentation, pickling, freezing, mixing, pumping, pasteurization, cooking and homogenization etc.

Rheological properties of foods are greatly influenced by various unit operations and processing methods or conditions such as heating and mechanical treatments. Processing of different food products such as dairy, fruit and vegetable products like jams and purees, chocolates, dough development etc. and basic make up of foods such as fats, proteins and others such as emulsifiers, hydrocolloids etc. affects the rheological properties of food product and which ultimately affects the quality of end product. Apart from processing conditions the compositional variations have a great impact on the textural or rheological properties of foods. The changes in rheological characteristics of a food product reflects the alterations in the molecular structure of the food material, this can aid in revealing the changes in product structure during different processing methods or conditions. In designing of various processes such as cooling, freezing and equipment design information about thermal properties is crucial. Moreover, in order to design storage structures for foods and refrigeration equipment the knowledge of thermal properties is important (Becker et al. 2003).

For rheological measurements various tests and techniques are available, such as steady and dynamic shear measurements. From the steady shear properties flow properties of the sample can be revealed whether the flow is Newtonian or Non Newtonian. In case of dynamic shear rheological properties information on viscoelastic characteristics can be withdrawn in terms of storage and loss modulus and depending on the predominance of each modulus the nature of sample can be predicted i.e. whether viscoelastic solid or viscoelastic fluid (Bhardwaj et al. 2019). Apart from these measurements, other rheological measurements are available for specific food materials, such as farinograph, alveo-consistograph, mixograph etc. are meant for study of rheological properties of dough. So, accordingly, depending upon the food material choice of rheological measurement can be made. To study the thermal transitions DSC (Differential scanning calorimeter) and DTA (Differential thermal analysis) are commonly employed. Dynamic measurements as a function of temperature or time are made in these techniques to detect the endothermal and exothermal changes. These techniques can be used to determine the phase transitions in various foods, for instance, crystallization and melting of water, lipids and other food components; denaturation of protein; gelatinization of starch and others (Roos 2015).

Introduction

Lipids are among the major components of food of plant and animal origin (food lipid). There is no precise definition available for the term lipid; however, it always includes a broad category of compounds that have some common properties and compositional similarities. Lipids are materials that are sparingly soluble or insoluble in water, but soluble in selected organic solvents like benzene, chloroform, ether, hexane, and methanol. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids constitute the principal structural components of tissues (Erwin Wsowicz et al., 2004). Lipid oxidation is one of the major reasons that foods deteriorate and is caused by the reaction of fats and oils with molecular oxygen resulting in off-flavours that are generally called rancidity. Exposure to light, pro-oxidants and elevated temperature will accelerate the reaction (Velasco, J et al., 2010). Rancidity is related to characteristic off-flavour and odour of the oil. There are two major causes of rancidity. One occurs when oil reacts with oxygen and is called oxidative rancidity (Ribeiro et. al., 1993). The other cause of rancidity is by a combination of enzymes and moisture. Enzymes like lipases liberate fatty acids from the triglyceride to make di and monoglycerides and free fatty acids and such liberation of free fatty acids is named hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is additionally caused by chemical process that’s prompted by factors like heat or presence of water. Rancidity caused by hydrolysis is called hydrolytic rancidity. Oxidation cares mainly with the unsaturated fatty acids. Oxidative rancidity is off interest because it results in the event of unfavourable off-flavours which will be detected early within the development of rancidity, more so than in the case of hydrolytic rancidity. Oxidation can alter the flavour and nutritional quality of foods and produce toxic compounds, all of which may make the foods less acceptable or unacceptable to consumers. Oxidation products typically include low relative molecular mass compounds that are volatile also as undesirable off-flavour compounds (Food lipids).

Fruit jelly is an important part of diet of all human being. It is easily digestible, highly refreshing, appetizing and nutritionally far superior to many foods. Today, a wide variety of fruit jellies are consumed in the home, at work place and sport stadium. There has been considerable increase in the consumption of fruit and vegetable jellies in the world during last few years. Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of required amount of sugar, citric acid and pectin. It should contain minimum 65 percent of total soluble solids and minimum 45 percent of fruit portion (Dhawan, 1998). Guava is rich source of pectin and acid content and have thick flesh is preferred for jelly making. For getting good quality jelly, mix under-ripe fruits give better pectin content and ripe fruits provide the flavor. Winter season fruits yield better quality jelly (Singh and Dhawan, 1983). It is a clear or translucent fruit spread made from sweetened fruit (or vegetable) juice and set using naturally occurring pectin. Additional pectin may be added where the original fruit does not supply enough. Jelly can be made from sweet, savory or hot ingredients. It is made by a process similar to that used for making jam, with the additional step of filtering out the fruit pulp after the initial heating.

Jellies are the products used as bread spreads all over the world. These are made from fruits rich in pectin. Guava, because of its rich pectin content, is processed into jelly. Processing of guava into jelly is practiced by processors all over the world. Colouring of jams and jellies has been an age old practices colorants. Great attention is being paid now days to the usage of natural colours in view of the hazards that the synthetic colours pose to human health. Incorporation of carrot resulted in colour improvement over control. Jelly containing carrot as a colouring source was found slightly better than other vegetables. Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of required amount of sugar, citric acid and pectin. It should contain minimum 65% of total soluble solids and minimum 45% of fruit portion (Dhawan, 1998).

Introduction

Commonly available food materials especially dairy products, cereals and fruits are perishable and require processing for long term storage. The methods of food storage has been known from the pre historic times and was mostly based on processing the food into a more stable form with a longer shelf life. Such processes increases the time range of food availability and in many cases improves the taste thereby, cumulatively improving the food value. One of documented method of food preservation is by fermentation and is age old. Other commonly used methods include drying, refrigeration, salting and fermentation (Luck 1985, Paulus, 1985, Christensen et al., 2003, Martindale and Schiebel, 2017).

Flavour and appeal of food has been considered as one of the important factors contributing to the demand of the food. Originally the flavours were largely plant derived, current industrial practices largely utilise synthesis by chemical reactions and subsequent extraction to achieve a uniform quality (Weckerle et al., 2006, Davidovich-Rikanati et al., 2008, Sethupathy et al., 2018). These chemicals referred to as “flavourings” are defined as compounds that enhance the taste, appeal and palatability of food. They are naturally derived or artificially synthesised compounds. Considering that many artificially synthesised chemical flavours might affect the health adversely. Industrial food research has now shifted their focus on flavourings that are naturally available (Cohen et al., 2018). Such naturally occurring flavourings are referred to as bio-flavours (de Billerbeck 2015). The ease of producing bio active compounds from microbial culture extracts has played significant role in industrial food biotechnology (Verachtert et al., 2005).

Introduction

Wine is a very unique fermented beverage. It was an essential part of various religious and cultural ceremonies in ancient civilizations; and continues to be considered as a ‘drink for elite’. The reason is that wine was considered as ‘Gift of God and ‘God’s nectar’ in religious text books, and medicinal value of the beverage is well supported by modern science. Wine is a beverage well tagged with its geographical origin. This concept originally comes from French concept of terroir; which explains that a varietal wine from a defined region possess distinctive qualities. Wine makers of the past enjoyed this definition of quality for better marketing opportunities. Today, globalization and advancement in wine science created empowered consumers who could clearly discriminate quality of wines. In addition to a product with high sensory qualities, consumers expect a healthful beverage produced in an environmentally sustainable manner. Enology research projects focus on such aspects; and this chapter is a glance on enology advancements and proven health benefits of wine, such as cardiovascular health gut health, dental health etc.

ABSTRACT

Green technologies are required in the field of food processing and production in order to achieve food security and to reduce adverse environmental impact. Application of nano technology in food processing and production can advance the food safety and quality, increase the bioavailability of nutrients and thereby improving human health. Nanotechnology can be applied to achieve green perspective like development of biodegradable packaging materials thereby reducing adverse environmental effect. Use of naturally occurring nanoparticles as additives can reduce the use of chemicals in food products. This chapter deals with the potential of nanotechnology to achieve green aspects in food processing and production.Main focusses are on achieving food security and environmental sustainability. Chapter also describes about the principles of nanotechnology and methods to achieve green aspectin food sector with the application of nanotechnology. Application of nanotechnology in food processing and production along with safety, regulations and accompanying laws are discussed in this chapter.

ABSTRACT

The commencement of the 21^st century has endorsed an extended requirement for safe and wholesome food. The fact is that consumer preferences, awareness and their concern towards food safety have been tremendously increased. Therefore, inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms through any treatment becomes essential for food processors to ensure that food is free from disease causing microorganisms and parallelly unaltered with respect to its organoleptic, functional and nourishing characteristic. Food industries predominantly adopt thermal inputs for the preservation of food. Thermal methods, however, lead to unfavourable changes in organoleptic and nutritional attributes, more particularly proteins and vitamins. Hence, there has been continuous development and advances in finding alternatives to conventional processing. Cold plasma technology is one such technique. Plasma can be defined as a quasi-neutral ionised gas and is more commonly termed as 4^th state of matter. Advances in plasma engineering have made it possible to generate plasma at atmospheric pressure which ultimately resulted in broadening the spectra of research on cold plasma at various interfaces of biological sciences. This chapter summarises the overview of cold plasma technology processing, numerous findings related to its application in the area of food decontamination, food fortification, seed germination, milk and milk products and modification of starches.

Keywords: cold plasma, non-thermal, plasma chemistry, fortification, modification, germination, plasma generation, novel

ABSTRACT

The rapid growth in population has created the need of industrialization and as a result there has been a significant increase in milk production and processing. Milk is a commodity which is consumed by persons of all age groups due to its nutritive value and health promoting attributes. However, the rapid growth in dairy sector has adversely affected the environment by emitting various greenhouse gases and thereby, resulting in global warming. Apart from it, there has been an increased usage of non- renewable resources like natural gas and coal in dairy sector. As a result, a viable balance has to be maintained between milk production and processing, environmental health and the rapidly growing population. This can only be achieved with the application of green or environment friendly technologies in all the stages of milk production and processing. This chapter will mainly deal with the various sources of greenhouse gases from dairy sector and on application of life cycle assessment and carbon foot printing for computing the impact of greenhouse gases on the environment. Also, this chapter will enclose various green technologies which can be applied in dairy sector to curb the greenhouse gas emissions.

Keywords: Carbon footprint, LCA, Greenhouse gases, Green Technology, Milk production, Milk Processing

In the previous chapter the physical methods of fruit and vegetables processing and preservation have been discussed. The present chapter deals with chemical method of fruit and vegetable preservation. In this method of preservation of fruits and vegetables, chemicals as preservatives are used to prevent the spoilage of fruit and vegetable products. These preservatives react with food (produce) constituents or microorganisms and create unfavourable conditions which hinder growth, activities and multiplication of microbes responsible for spoilage of food products. These chemical agents have maximum permissible limit of their use as law. They can be classified into two classes class I and class II.

Class I: Sugar, Salt and Oils

Class II: Sodium benzoate, Potassium metabisulphite (K M S) and Sorbic acid

1. INTRODUCTION

India produces a large variety of fruits and vegetable due to varied agro-climatic conditions. These include mango, citrus, banana, apple grapes, strawberry, pineapple, litchi, guava, papaya, plum, peach, pear apricot etc. Astonishingly, it may appear but it is a fact that postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables in India are staggering. Infact the postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables are equivalent to the annual consumption of fruits and vegetables in U.K. In this article, a focus is made on the causes of postharvest losses of fruits, overview of various techniques used to prevent the postharvest losses constrains in postharvest technology and future strategies.

1. INTRODUCTION

Every fruit or vegetable is harvested keeping in view, its intended use. At what stage it should be harvested, is indicated by the maturity index. The chapter focuses on these and postharvest quality of fruits and vegetables.

2. FRUIT MATURITY

"Maturity of a fruit can be defined as that stage at which a commodity has reached a sufficient stage of development that after harvesting and postharvest handling, its quality will be at least the minimum acceptable to the ultimate consumer”. Maturity is of two types:

1. INTRODUCTION

Indians are known to prepare preserves from the ancient times. They were also familiar with ther therapeutic values associated with the preserves. Besides, candies, reathers and toffees are the other food products prepared and consumed. In this chapter, the methods of their preparation are described.

2. PRESERVES

A preserve is made from properly mature fruit, by cooking it whole or in the form of large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and transparent. In its preparation not less than 45Kg of the fruit are used for every 55Kg of sugar, and cooking is continued till a concentration of at least 68 per cent of TSS (Total Soluble Solids) is reached.

Freshly made preserves are wholesome and have an attractive appearance. When they are stored for a long period, their natural colour and flavour deteriorates on account of oxidative changes. They should therefore, be made only during the season, unless there should be adequate facilities to keep the fruits so that they are available in the off-season also.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is an age old technology. It has been used by man since antiquity. It has been employed to produce a number of fermented products such as wine, beer, curd, vinegar, pickles and several others. Fermentation was discovered quite early and by chance but the underlying principles were discovered very late. Primarly fermentation was used as a method of shelf-life extension of the produce in the time of glut production, though the final product had modified sensory qualities. Thus, fermentation and drying were the main methods of preservation. With the discovery of new methods of preservation, fermentation as a method of preservation has gone into background and as technique of flavour development and product with modified sensory quality came into practice. In this chapter, fermentation as a method of preservation has been described.

Introduction

Functional elements are non-conventional biomolecules in foods that have the ability to modulate one or more body metabolic processes or pathways, leading in health advantages and well-being promotion. Research has demonstrated a connection between food, health and well-being functional elements. Consequently, functional elements have health-promoting roles connected with multiple progressive steps at various phases of disease control, from initiation to growth. They can therefore be implemented efficiently in disease therapy and prevention. Therefore, the borderline between food and medicine is becoming very thin at a moment when the role of a healthy diet in stopping non-communicable diseases is well recognized. Functional elements include plant-derived, non-nutritious and biologically active chemicals that operate in the body to avoid certain non-communicable diseases from occurring.

Food contains over 900 phytochemicals. One fruit or vegetable serving (about 120g) can contain as many as 100 distinct phytochemicals. Previously, functional elements were believed to happen predominantly only as phytochemicals in plant products including whole grains, fruits and vegetables. However, in animal goods such as milk, fermented dairy products and cold water fish, probiotics, conjugated linolenic acid, long-chain omega-3, −6 and −9 polyunsaturated fatty acids and bioactive peptides are also discovered. Usually, functional elements happen in various forms in food such as glycosylated, esterified, thiolated or hydroxylated materials. They also have numerous metabolic operations that enable positive impacts in the body on several illnesses and target tissues (Balic et al. 2020).

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

Abstract

Enzyme is a highly efficient catalyst that is produced by active cells. When compared to chemical catalysts; enzymes have a number of benefits, including high specificity, high catalytic efficiency and flexible activity, all of which greatly help to promote their use in the pharmaceutical, chemical, and food sectors. The majority of enzymes such as protease, amylase, lipase and cellulase are relatively unstable and industrial uses are frequently restricted by a lack of long-term operational stability as well as the technically challenging recovery process and ruse of the enzyme. Enzyme immobilization provides an excellent base for increasing enzyme availability to the substrate with higher turnover over a long period of time. Enzyme immobilization are done by several methods and their performance are influenced by many factors. Physical and chemical based immobilization are the most commonly used methods. The matrix immobilizes the enzyme by holding it permanently or temporarily for a short stretch of time. The generally used matrixes for immobilizations includes natural, synthetic polymers and inorganic compounds.Currently, synergistic interactions of biotechnology and nanotechnology are useful for the development of immobilized enzymes. Enzyme immobilization is a commonly used technology in a variety of industries including food, pharmaceuticals, bioremediation, detergents, and textiles due to technical and economical advantages. This chapter focuses on most commonly used immobilized techniques in industry with many recent applications of immobilized enzymes.

10.1. Introduction

When it comes to packaging, plastics are still popular because of durability, versatility, economic production, and enhanced mechanical properties. However, with growing concerns about the impact of plastics-based packaging on the environment, edible and biodegradable packaging were introduced. The application of edible and biodegradable packaging promotes renewable resources, which greatly reduces environmental concerns and fulfil the packaging requirements. The sources employed to develop edible and biodegradable packaging are mainly plant-based biopolymers like cellulose, proteins, starch, and lipid. Moreover, the properties of the packaging material are decided by the proportions of these biopolymers. Hence, selecting a food commodity to be package is equally important as selecting suitable resources for the development of edible and biodegradable packaging.

12.1. Introduction

Food Packaging is a means to ensure safety and quality of food product throughout storage, transportation, handling, distribution, retailing, sales and in some cases till the intended use. International trades in food are generally guided by Codex Alimetarius Commission (CAC) (A joint body of World Health Organization and Food & Agricultural Organization). CAC works in harmonization within the context of food standards, food packaging and the applied rules. The mandate of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) is to facilitate food trades and remove restraints at possible extent. Through these agreements, member countries have provision to apply quality and safety measures to safeguard the consumer. Such measures extend to every aspect of food and its packaging. On the other side, food packaging industries also progressed with sound technological advancement and sophistication in the last three decades. Innovations in food packaging attracted consumers due to convenience, availability, safety, quality and preservation throughout shelf life of the food product. 

Introduction Fruits and vegetables are basic foods for human physical health since they have a wide range of flavours and are linked to a higher quality of life. Horticultural crops are known to reduce the risk of a variety of chronic diseases. Recognizing the importance of fruits and vegetables in the human diet, demand for these horticulture food products has skyrocketed. The demand for fruits and vegetables has expanded significantly as a result of greater consumer awareness of dietary habits, the benefits of eating fruits and vegetables, and an increase in the global population. According to research by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), horticulture product production for 2019 is expected to be 314.5 million tonnes, which is roughly 1% more than the global fruit and vegetable (F&V) production in 2017–2018. (FAOSTAT-FAO statistical database, 2019). Over 67 % of the world’s horticulture produce is produced in China, India, the United States, Turkey, Russia, Vietnam, and Mexico (Paggiola et al., 2016).

Introduction Sea food processing is one of the major contributors in food processing sector. The purpose of seafood processing is to prevent the wastage and prolong the shelf life of highly perishable commodity. It also increases the economy of the country through exports (Gopal et al., 2014). India produce 9.6 million MT of sea food during the every year and is one of the largest fish producers in the world. 23% of marine products are processed currently in India (Sathianandan, 2017). Pasteurized crab meat is one type of processed marine commodity exported from India. Globally, the pasteurized blue crab and swimming crabs are the major contributors to the economic wellbeing of the seafood industry. In India, pasteurized crab meat industries are significantly contributing to the export markets. Among the crab export, 70-80% is exported as pasteurized crab meat (Jebadurai17, 2014).

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.