eChapters

Introduction

Over the past few decades, probiotics have become the most promising and emerging field in human nutrition and health across the world including India and other developing countries. The global profit generated from the probiotic market is expected to reach approximately 12,753.4 million US$ by the end of 2026 (Probiotic market report, 2018). The factor fueling the demand for probiotics is the growing awareness among consumers about their health benefits. The association of probiotics with health benefits stretches back to a time before microbes were discovered. However, the scientific evidence of the health benefits of probiotic microorganisms on the wellbeing of the host was firstly proposed by Russian Nobel laureate Ellie Metchnikoff in 1905. He reported that consumption of fermented milk containing Lactobacillus spp. is responsible for the healthy and long life of Bulgarian people (Anukam & Reid, 2007). Afterward, several of scientific progressions were made to reach the current status where probiotics are not only the subject of food and medical research but also the source of a multi-billion dollar global industry.

The term probiotic is derived from the Greek words, which means ‘for life’. According to the Food and Agriculture Association of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO), probiotics are defined as “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amount promote the health of the host” (Joint, FAO, 2002). In 2014, International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (IPPA) did minor correction in the definition given by FAO-WHO and defined them as “Live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host”

ABSTRACT

Fruits and vegetables are rich source of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, antioxidants and flavonoids. Drying is one of the common methods for preservation of food and agricultural commodities. However, drying may negatively affect the product quality attributes. This article is a capsule overview of current state of art ultrasound (US) assisted drying on technical aspects and bioactivity of fruits and vegetables. US assisted drying is an economical and sustainable technique compared to other existing conventional techniques used for food processing and preservation. US as a pretreatment before drying of agricultural-products enhances drying efficiency, inactivate enzymes and improve overall quality of dried products. Current developments and available solutions in drying have shown that US assisted drying may be used to restrict the loss of crucial bioactive components occurring naturally in fruits and vegetables. US when combined with hot air drying helps in achieving adequate drying rate at lower temperatures and improves overall dehydration process. This technique has found no practical application commercially due to various difficulties in achieving high-intensity US in air. One practical benefit of using US assisted drying is the minimization of the drying time along with reduction in total energy consumption.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruits and Vegetables are heighly perishable crops and have to be handled carefully after harvest. Postharvest handling of these perishables is essential to prevent the post harvest losses and maintain the quality of the fruits and vegetables. Various treatments (chemical, physical and biological agents) have been standardised and used for retaining the storage quality of different horticultural commodities. All these aspects have been discussed in this chapter.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the changing global scenario, food nutrition, health care and livelihood security are the matter of great concern to human, social and economic development. Fruits and vegetables is one of the most important and fast growing sub-sectors as they form an indispensable part of healthy diet. The current trend shows that dietary habits are changing with increasing income, from cereal based diet to nutritious diet. Resultantly, there is a growing demand for horticultural produce.

World production of vegetables amounts to 1169.45 million tonnes, while that of fruits is 689.39 million tonnes (NHB, 2017). India is the second major producer of fruits and vegetables in the world and ranks next to China. India produces 92.85 million tonnes of fruits from an area of 6.5 million hectares and 175.00 millions tonns of vegetables from an area of 9.2 million hectares annually. The productivity of vegetables in India is 17.6 tonnes per hectare. Potato (28.9%), tomato (11.3%), onion (10.3%) and brinjal (8.1%) are the 4 major vegetables contributing 58.6% of total vegetable production in our country. Other important vegetables are cabbage (5.4%), cauliflower (4.6%), okra (3.9%) and peas (2.4%)

1. INTRODUCTION

Juices and pulps are produced from a wide variety of fruits and vegetables around the world, while some medicinal plants and herbs are also used for preparation of extract of beneficial bioactive compounds. These juices and extracts contain very high proportions (upto 75-90%) of water. Due to their seasonal nature, these products can not be produced round the year in various parts of the world. Preservation, storage, transportation and marketing of single strength juices, pulps and extracts is not at all economical due to the presence of large quantities of water. Under these circumstances, the technology of concentration offers many advantages.

In chemistry, concentration, as a state, may be defined as “the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture” and can be mathematically explained in four types i.e. mass concentration, volume concentration, molar concentration and number concentration. Generally, the term concentration can be applied to any mixture (solid or liquid) but most frequently it refers to the presence of solutes in solvents. Mass concentration is defined as mass/volume (m/V) of mixture and represented in kg/m³, volume concentration as volume of a constituent divided by the volume of all constituents of the mixture (v/V) and represented in m³/m³, molar concentration as moles of a constituent divided by the volume of all constituents of the mixture (n/V) and represented in mol/m³, while, number concentration is defined as the number of entities of a constituent in a mixture divided by the volume of the mixture (N/V) represented in 1/m³.

In food technology or fruit juice industry in particular, concentration refers to a process of separation of water (or any other solvent) from the solids of the pulp, juice, extract by making use of any of the three basic methods i.e. evaporation, freezing and membrane technology. Pulps, juices and extracts are the basic material used for preparation of various types of processed products. But due to their bulk and presence of large quantities of water they are difficult to store and transport. Concentration of juices, not only provides microbial stability, but also reduces the costs of packaging, transportation and storage by reducing the bulk of the material. Concentrated juice, contains far less water than normal, or “not-from-concentrate” forms of juice.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food additives have been used for centuries in food processing practices such as smoking and salting of meat. Prior to the advent of refrigeration, food grown in the summer had to be preserved for the winter. Salt, sugar, and vinegar were commonly used preservatives. Additives serve many roles and their common uses includes maintaining product consistency and palatability, providing leavening or controlling pH, enhancing flavour and imparting colour. A food additive can be defined in many ways. The Codex Alimentarius Commission, which develops international regulatory guidelines for food additives, provides the following definition of a food additive:

"Any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself, and not normally used as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food results, or may reasonably be expected to result, (directly or indirectly), in it or its by-products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such food. The term does not include contaminants or substances added to food for maintaining or improving nutritional qualities".

F.A.O and W.H.O in 1956 defines food additives as non-nutritive substances added intentionally to food, generally in small quantities, to improve its appearance, flavour, or storage properties. The definition did not include vitamins and minerals. Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FASSI) in 2011 defines food additives “as any substances which is added to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation or treatment of such food and affects the characteristics of such food, but does” not include contaminats or any substance(s) added to the food maintaining or improving the nutritional values. Food additives are those added intentionally to foods and are not naturally a part of a food but can be a part of food unintentionally.

1. INTRODUCTION

Enzymes are proteins with highly specialized catalytic functions responsible for many essential biochemical reactions in microorganisms, plants, animals and human beings. Enzymes play an important role in many aspects of life since the dawn of civilization that have used enzymes for thousands of years without understanding what they were or how they work. Food processing through the use of biological agents/enzymes is historically a well-established approach. The earliest applications go back to 6000 BC or earlier, with the brewing of beer, bread baking, cheese and wine making. Whereas the first purposeful microbial oxidation dates back 2000 BC, with vinegar production. In the late 19^thcentury, Christian Hansen reported the use of rennet for cheese making and production of bacterial amylases was started at Takamine (latter became part of Genencor). Pectinases have been used for juice clarification in the 1930s and during World War II, invertase was also employed the production of invert sugar syrup in a process that pioneered the use of immobilized enzymes in the sugar industry. Still, the large-scale application of enzymes could only be really established in the 1960s, when the traditional acid hydrolysis of starch was replaced by an approach based in the use of amylases and amyloglucosidases (glucoamylases) and glucose (xylose) isomerase. From then onward, the trend for the design and implementation of processes and production of products by the use of enzymes has steadily increased.

Food and beverages and household care industries represent the largest application areas of enzymes, followed by animal feed, biofuels, textile and other technical industries. Recently, several new developments have taken place in the application of enzymes in fruit and vegetable processing. Fruits and vegetables are consumed as fresh or processed into different type of products. Commercial enzyme preparations are used as processing aids in fruit and vegetable processing to improve the process efficiency and product quality, because enzymes show activity on specific substrates under mild processing conditions. Therefore, there has been a striking growth in the enzyme market for applications in the fruit and vegetable industry.

1. INTRODUCTION

Packaging waste forms a significant part of solid waste and has caused increasing environmental concerns, resulting in strengthening of various regulations aimed at reducing the amounts generated. A wide range of oil-based polymers is currently used for packaging of various products by different industries including the food industry. These are virtually non-biodegradable and some are difficult to recycle or re-use as they are complex composites having varying levels of contaminants and pose serious health concerns. In the recent years, the use of bio-based and biodegradable products as packaging material has generated a lot of interest amongst researchers as they bring out a significant contribution to sustainable development with a wider range of disposal options.

Bioplastics are polymers that are capable of undergoing decomposition into CO₂, H₂O and inorganic compounds or biomass through predominantly the enzymatic action of microorganisms. Some of these polymers can also be compostable, which leads to their decomposition in a compost site at a rate consistent with known compostable materials. The market for these environmentally friendly materials is expanding rapidly, at the rate of 10–20 per cent per year. The global market for biodegradable polymers exceeds 114 million pounds and is expected to rise at an average annual growth rate of 12.6 per cent to 206 million pounds by 2020.

Bio-based packaging materials are mostly used to pack short shelf-life products, like fresh fruits and vegetables, and long shelf-life products, like pasta and chips, which do not require very high oxygen and/or water barrier properties. However, the inventory of films shows a wide variety in properties, which could make them applicable as a packaging material for other food products with stricter conditions, like MAP packaging. One of the challenges faced by the food packaging industry in its efforts to produce bio-based primary packaging, is to match the durability of the packaging with product shelf-life. The bio-based material offers great potential for the packaging industry. However, it is important to realize that a thorough evaluation of the functional properties of a bio-based material is essential before it can be used as an alternative for the traditional film materials.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sensory science is the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation and includes our basic understanding of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could unfold the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) methodology was first described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be the impediments in solving “the problem of flavour characterization” Further, new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by the food industry, but much more needed in be done if it is to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food and it is taste plus odour. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volatile tastants by the tongue while in other words, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all the possible flavour stimuli that could be encountered is as vast as the galaxy.

Introduction

Increasing knowledge regarding the impact of diet on human health along with state-of-the-art technologies has led to significant nutritional discoveries, product innovations, and mass production on an unprecedented scale. In particular, naturally occurring bioactive extracts or single compounds thereof, that are believed to benefit human health, have spawned an important and dynamic new area of research resulting in substantial advances in nutritional knowledge. There is also growing awareness that dietary source and form of food may affect overall health. Suitably, the role of food as an agent for improving health has been recognized, initiating the development of new classes of food, known as functional foods (Honkanen 2009).

The concept of functional foods is to improve the general conditions of the body and decrease the risk of illness and disease. That is to say, bioactive compounds present as natural constituents or as fortificants in food having the potential to provide health benefits beyond the basic nutritional value of the product. Marine-derived nutrients and other marine bioactive components have excellent potential as functional food ingredients as they possess advantageous physiological effects, with medicinal characteristics and added health benefits such as anticancer or anti-inflammatory activity.

The marine world, due to its phenomenal biodiversity, is a rich natural resource of many biologically active compounds such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), sterols, proteins, polysaccharides, antioxidants and pigments. Many marine organisms live in complex habitats exposed to extreme conditions and, in adapting to new environmental surroundings, they produce a wide variety of secondary (biologically active) metabolites which cannot be found in other organisms. Moreover, considering its great taxonomic diversity, investigations related to the search of new bioactive compounds from the marine environment can be seen as an almost unlimited field.

Introduction

In recent years, food scientists, nutritionists and health experts have become more inclined towards functional food components present in various food sources due to their positive influence on health, which is beyond providing the basic nutrition.Nowa days, generalconsumers are also seeking healthier food options because of nutritive food habits and awareness. Therefore, it has triggered the studyof food and deep mining of food components from nutritional and health benefit’s perspective also. Functional food ingredient can be defined as any componentwhich is more than a source of nutrient i.e. provides additional specific health benefits. Milk is well known to exert positive effect on human health, provides nutrition and widely consumed all across the globe in form of either milk or milk products. As per the definition, milk is heterogeneous blend of lacteal secretion which contains various elements that displays wide range of chemical and functional activities. It has been more than a source nutrition and supplement to different age groups either neonates, youngsters or grown up peoples (Park, 2009). It is one of the basicelements of many diets either in its native form or fermented form which every class of people can afford and had evolved as one of the important nourishment sources. Milk in its native form contains fewer bioactive components while fermentation process produces numerous secondary metabolites which possess various health-beneficial properties (Stanton et al., 2005).

The fungi are usually:

a) Parasites or saprophytes b) Lithophytes

c) Epiphytes d) Insectivorous

Food preservation methods are important in order to avoid glut or shortage of food in the market. In addition it helps to increase the shelf life, maintain the nutritional and sensorial quality, facilitate transportation and improve the overall value of the commodity. Even though various methods of food preservation are available now. Most of the conventional methods are thermal preservation methods which may result in the loss of volatile nutrients and flavour, different sensorial modifications, microbial spread with or without gas production, damage to the microstructure, rupture of coating or packaging surfaces and microbial recontamination caused by non-hermetic closure.

Growing population has increased the demand on food supply. Providing safe and hygienic food to the population is an essential consideration. Food safety systems and tools need to be in place to assure safe food, until which the food businesses would not flourish or be able to build their reputation. Food safety systems and management tools are important as they assist food business organizations to build confidence in people regarding food safety.

Abstract

Water is very essential nutrient and total of only 3% pure water is present on earth. Some natural, anthropogenic and human activities discharge wastes, containing heavy metals into the different water resources and ultimately destroying the ecosystem. Numbers of methods are used for water purification like conventional (includes physical and chemical) and biological. Conventional methods are expensive, generate large quantities of sludge and inefficient at low concentrations of metal. Biological method includes biosorption and bioaccumulation, are ecofriendly and economic and have advantages over conventional methods. Biosorbent material includes microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial by-products are used to treat heavy metal from liquid samples. Actually these biosorbent have number of functional groups on their surfaces which help in binding of metal from aqueous solution. In this article, biosorption of zinc, arsenic and copper are described through lactic acid bacteria that are not harmful, nonsporulating, fastidious, fermentative and generally regarded as safe. Many of these species are probiotic and producing exopolysaccharides and biofilms. It has great resistance to survive in gut environment and efficiency to biosorb metal from gut. It has some significant characteristics that represent a useful tool for decontamination of food and beverages from heavy metals. Biosorption mechanism and factors behind the process make these strains competent of removing these heavy metals.

Abstract

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which plays a major role in various disciplines including drug discovery, pharmacogenomics, proteomics, comparative genomics, microbial genome applications in biotechnology. Food plays a vital role in various processes in body and also helps in controlling various chronic diseases. Food safety and food processing are very crucial factor for human lives. Bioinformatics has been successfully applied in food industry for improving various factors of food such as flavor, taste, allergenicity, probiotics, optimizing the quantitative and compositional parameters for food processing and assessing the food safety. In this chapter, we have given an overview about the role of bioinformatics in food industry.

5.1. Introduction

Glass is one of the oldest packaging materials used for food. The use of glass as a packaging material dates back to 3000 BC where it was the first object to be used for containing and carrying food objects. It is made by cooling a heated fused mixture of silicates, lime and soda. It is an amorphous material in which all the constituents individually form an irregular network at microscopic level. It means it has failed to form a definite crystalline structure during cooling. Glass is defined as “amorphous, inorganic product of fusion that has been cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing (ASTM, 2010)”. It has no definite melting point.

2.1. Tomato

2.1.1. Tomato paste

Steps in tomato paste preparation

Step 1 : Tomato juice (strained)
Cooking to desired consistency (Kettle/vacuum pan)

Step 2 : Judging the end point for puree or paste (Tomato solids by hand refractometer or reduction in volume by measuring stick)

Step 3 : Filling hot into bottles or canes (82-88°C)

Step 4 : Pasteurization in boiling water for 20 minutes

Step 5 : Cooling

Step 6 : Storage at ambient temperature

Step 7 : Packing and storage

2.1.2. Tomato sauce / ketchup

• It is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and vinegar, with or without onion and garlic and contains not less than 12 per cent tomato solids and 25 per cent total solids.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are an important part of healthy human diet. Consumption of vegetables is widely promoted by Governmental health agencies since it provide consumers essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber and phytochemical compounds, at a relatively low calorie density. Furthermore, the consumption of vegetables has been strongly associated with reduced chronic and degenerative diseases such as cancer and heart related ailments. The United States Department of Agriculture recommends five to nine servings of fruits and vegetables daily (Berger et al 2010). In recent years, fresh-cut produce has become more popular due to their convenience, freshness, taste and assumed “Healthiness”.

1. Introduction

Food is an essential requirement for survival. We work hard to earn money so that we can feed ourselves. However, at the end of the day, many of us are unsure about the quality of food we consume. The allure of money, along with a general disregard for humanity, has resulted in the addition of adulterants to food ranging from simple stones in rice to the more harmful chemicals in food of daily use. Surprisingly, food fraud is not a modern issue. There are several references to fraudulent food behaviour as early as the Romans, but it is usually considered to be the Victorian who places food fraud on the map.

In recent years dietary supplements have gained attractiveness within fitness and wellness circles. The other commonly used terms areNutraceuticals, dietary supplements or wellness-focussed foods. Being highly nutritious they are associated with a number of potential therapeutic effects. Nutrient-rich ingredients like fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and grains are often considered dietary supplements as well. Oats fibre called, beta glucan, which has been shown to reduce inflammation, enhance immune function, and perk up heart health.

1. Conventional and Non-conventional Dietary Supplements

Nutrient-rich foods like fruits, vegetables, and legumes are often considered dietary supplements. Meanwhile, modified foods have been fortified with micro and macro nutrients to boost health benefits of foods.

Introduction

It is the process of retaining food over a period of time without being contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritious value. It involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which causes rancidity.

Objective

• To increase its shelf life, retaining original nutritional values, colour, texture, and favour.

Introduction

The process of concentrating a fruit juice / pulp, vegetable juice, medicinal plant extracts or milk to a reasonably thick consistency is called concentration. Thus, concentration is a water removal process from the liquid food materials. The basic principle of concentration is boiling the liquid under partial vacuum at low temperature till desired concentration is reached. With respect to water removal, the concentration process is similar to dehydration. The food concentration is distinguished from drying on the basis of the finished product where the final product called concentrate is still liquid. In concentration process, only liquid food is used while in drying both liquid as well as solid food can be used. Fruit juice concentrates, milk concentrate are valuable semi-processed products for use in the production of value added products like fruit juice beverages and fruit juice powders. Since the water content of single strength fruit juices is very high (about 75-90%), concentration of fruit juices not only provides microbiological stability but also permits economy in packaging transportation, and distribution of the finished product due to reduction in bulk by weight and volume.

MAC: It stands for modified atmospheric coating.

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 230).

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 231).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 232).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macro economics: Studies of economics in terms of whole systems esp. with reference to general levels of output and income and to the inter-relations among sectors of the economy.

T A Spoilage: The spoilage of low and medium acid canned foods by Clostridium thermosacharolyticum which breaks sugars and form acid and gas (moisture of H2 and CO2 ) resulted in swelling and in severe cases even bursting of can may occur and the spoiled food usually has a sour odour.

T cell: It is one of the lymphocytes (helper T cell) that differentiate in the thymus, possess highly specific cell-surface antigen receptors, and include some that control the initiation or suppression of cell-mediated and humoral immunity (regulation of T and B cell maturation and proliferation) and others that lyses antigen-bearing cells. It is also called T lymphocyte.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 313).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meats.

Table wine: Table wine is a dry wine with low alcohol content. Dessert wines certified sweet wine.

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 209).

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Dairy husbandry: It deals with care, breeding, feeding, milking of the diary cattle and the production and sale of the milk. It is the economical management of a dairy, including looking after the dairy cattle breeding and proper disposal or sale of milk and milk products.

Dairy products: These are the milk preparation, including butter, cream, cheese, ghee, yoghurt, pasteurized milk, tonned milk, butter milk etc processed and prepared in dairy. Ice cream and kulfi or sweets are not included in this.

Damage: Damage is a physical spoilage, often a partial deterioration, are subjectively judge and very difficult to measure and usually reported as per cent damage.

Daminozide: It is a growth regulator which is used for red colour development in apple.

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500- E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents), and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Earling: The young lamb of one to two years’ age is called earling or yearling.

Ebullioscopic constant: The boiling point elevation is expressed by Dtb = Km, where m is molality of the solution and K is ebullioscopic constant. It is also called as molal boiling point elevation constant. The unit of an ebullioscopic constant is K Kg mol-1.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding branch of science that has a critical role to play in raising the standard of living for people in the modern world. The global market for nanotechnology in food packaging is valued at 20 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow to 46.50 billion by 2031, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.32% from 2024 to 2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2023). The rapid expansion of nanotechnology has paved the way for number of industrial areas, including food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural output (Mohammadi & Jafari, 2021). Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that significantly enhances the quality of life in today's world. This rapid advancement has opened up numerous industrial sectors, such as food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural production. A natural advancement is the integration of nanotechnology into food packaging. This includes enhanced packaging, active packaging, and a new category known as smart or intelligent packaging. Food contact materials, such as antimicrobial metals and oxides, biodegradable nanocomposites, and nanosensors, are utilized to create active and intelligent packaging. These materials enhance thermal and mechanical durability, increase safety and extend the shelf life of food, and facilitate the monitoring of packaged food (Kah et al., 2013). At the nanoscale, material properties change significantly, making it challenging to predict, identify, evaluate, and manage the health, safety, and environmental risks associated with nanomaterials. For example, nanoparticles (NPs) of 50 nm can enter cells, those of 70 nm can penetrate the lungs, and 30 nm NPs can cross blood-brain barriers.

Introduction

The horticulture sector is contributing over 30 per cent share in agricultural GDP of the country. Presently, India producing about 351.92 million tons of horticultural produce from 28.04 million hectare which has surpassed the food grain production for last five consecutive years (Anonymous, 2023). Horticulture sector has been identified by Government of India also identified horticulture as one of the vital sector for entrepreneurship development, employment generation, livelihood and nutritional security, doubling farmer’s income, achieving SDGs of the United Nations.

Fruits and vegetables have become part of a modern healthy lifestyle as they possess high amounts of minerals, especially electrolytes, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, especially antioxidants, and vitamins (Yahia et al., 2019; Krishnan Kesavan et al., 2023). In consumption, the qualities of products play a critical role in consumers’ choices, which are directly related to health problems (Tian, and Xu, 2022). Bioactive compounds are phytochemical substances present in small quantities in plant materials that can provide biological activity, being generally associated with health benefits, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antithrombotic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic and prevention of cardiovascular and degenerative diseases (Campoli et al., 2018). Therefore, maintaining high-quality fruits and vegetables is very important for the fruit and vegetable industry. This requires some methods to evaluate the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables during their post-harvest manipulation and storage and before their industrial processing as well (Tian and Xu, 2022).

Introduction

A wide range of agricultural pesticides is currently being used in India. In the financial year of 2015, the size of the crop protection market in India was of about $4.5 billion (FICCI, 2016). A large number of these pesticides are also being used in considerable quantity on horticultural crops, including fruit crops. In general, judicious application of a pesticide following Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) does not leave its residues in crop produces above unacceptable limit. But the GAP recommendations are not available for all crop-pesticide combinations. The usage pattern of pesticides also sometimes gets modified at farm level due to sudden climate changes, and under such situations, the indiscriminate use of pesticides to combat disease and insect complex might result in the contamination of pesticides in fruits.

The production of fruit crops is largely dependent on the environmental conditions and nutritional status of the plants. Any alteration in the environmental conditions and nutritional status may results in different physiological disorders which affect the growth of the plants and also the quantity as well as quality of the fruits. The precise and early recognition of physiological disorders is important for the timely adaptation of remedial strategies to reduce the crop loss. Physiological disorders in fruits crops may be due to single factors or multiple factors may be involved in the appearance of physiological disorders. A sound knowledge about the cause of physiological disorder is useful to adopt suitable remedy for the disorder.

Introduction

The abnormal growth behavior or unusual external and/or internal conditions of fruits which results due to adverse environmental conditions and nutritional imbalances are considered as physiological disorders. Physiological disorder is best defined as external or internal malfunctioning resulting from improper environmental or cultural conditions before and/or after harvest. Variation from normal temperature, light, moisture, nutrient, harmful gases, insufficient supply of growth regulators, deficiencies or excesses of nutrient etc. are some of the important environmental and cultural factors of physiological disorders (Fig. 1). Physiological disorders affect the quality as well as quantity of the fruit crops. Detection of precise physiological disorders is not easy and requires a strong knowledge regarding them.

Modern fruit and vegetable processing industry is by and large, employing sophisticated machinery and equipment and efficient technique of production. There is still a scope for expansion of the industry by developing and exporting value-added products and on more foreign exchange. The choice of products to be manufactured will depend on the readily availability of raw materials in the area where the Processing Unit is supposed to be set up and the consumer preference in the neighbouring market. Preservation of food has to be established in the developing countries for other reasons also such as to generate both rural and urban employment, improve farmers nutrition by allowing them to consume their own processed fruits and vegetables during the off- season, stimulate agricultural production by obtaining marketable products, reduction of imports and meeting of export demand and to develop new value-added products. The food processing industry has now become more of a necessity than being a luxury. It plays an important role in the conservation and better utilisation of fruits and vegetables. To avoid the glut and utilise the surplus during the season, it is necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for better distribution and processing techniques to preserve them for utilisation in the off season on both large scale and small scale. Fruit and vegetable processing was first started in an organised manner in 1857, mainly to make pickles and chutneys with a view to meeting the export requirement.
Mango Processing Technologies
Mangoes are processed at two stages of maturity. Green fruit is used to make chutney, pickles, curries and dehydrated products. The green fruit should be freshly picked from the tree. Fruit that is bruised, damaged, or that has prematurely fallen to the ground should not be used.

Introduction
For setting up a fruit processing plant, the following cost and non-cost factors affecting the plant’s location are considered. Cost factors include raw material cost, transportation cost, cost of land, building and machinery, utilities cost, taxes, and insurance costs. At the same time, non-cost factors consisting of wages, salaries and incentives, market potential, community attitude, cost regulation, quality of life (school, living, recreation for workers, etc.), and environmental impact are taken into consideration. The main objective for the selection of the site for the processing unit is to minimize the sum of all costs. To minimize the cost, one should think not only the today’s costs but about long-term costs as well.
Plant Layout
The advantages of good plant layout are: -
i. Saving in floor space
ii. Increased output
iii. Fewer production delays
iv. Reduced material handling cost
v. Greater utilization of machine and manpower
vi. Easier and better supervision
vii. Less congestion and confusion
viii. Better appearance and more sanitary condition of work areas
ix. Reduced risk to the health and safety of employees

1. Introduction:- Ensuring Quality and Success in Assisted Reproductive
Technology through Good Laboratory Practices Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) in animals has become an increasingly vital set of techniques with wide-ranging applications across agriculture, wildlife conservation, and biomedical research. These technologies, encompassing procedures such as in-vitro fertilization (IVF), embryo transfer, and cryopreservation of gametes and embryos, offer solutions to infertility, enable genetic improvement in livestock, and play a crucial role in preserving endangered species. As the application of ART expands throughout the globe, the need for stringent quality control and standardization becomes paramount to ensure the reliability and reproducibility of outcomes. Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) represent a well-established quality system that provides a framework for the organizational processes and conditions under which non-clinical studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. Originally developed to ensure the integrity of safety data for pharmaceuticals and other regulated products, the fundamental principles of GLP are highly relevant to the field of animal ART. This report aims to explore the application of GLP in ART and to thoroughly investigate its contribution to achieving successful outcomes in various ART procedures and across different animal species. By examining the core principles of GLP and their practical implementation in animal ART laboratories, this analysis will highlight the critical role of standardized practices in enhancing the reliability, ethical conduct, and overall success of animal reproductive technologies.
2. Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) in Reference to ART
Good Laboratory Practices are broadly defined as a quality system that governs the organization and conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. This system is designed to ensure the quality and

Performance metrics and indicators
Traditionally, in the past, TTOs’ performance was measured in monetary terms, such as universities’ revenues derived through commercialization. The methodology, however, is prone to shortcomings, in light of the fact that various TTOs do not receive significant amounts of financial proceeds through their technology transfers. In addition, relying on income does not depict a TTO’s true potential, in light of the fact that it does not account for the total range of outputs of research and commercialization opportunities. Recognizing these limitations, academics have found innovative ways to measure TTO efficiency, such as monetary and non-monetary indicators. Financial indicators typically entail measurable outcomes such as number of signed licenses, income from licenses, royalties collected, equity income, and number of spin-offs or startups created. These are actual gauges of the economic returns from commercialization efforts, and in the majority of instances are used in the context of benchmarking the performance of a TTO in a comparative context, perhaps against peer institutions or industry averages. Non-financial indicators consist of royalty distributions to academics, having an integral role in encouraging academics to participate in commercialisation activity. By incorporating monetary and non-financial metrics, universities might have an enhanced, comprehensive evaluation system for their TTOs. Such evaluation is sure to ensure assessment extends beyond short-run monetary metrics and looks to incorporate several organization, institutional, and research-oriented determinants in driving successful technology transfer.

Packaging machinery is a critical component in the food industry, enabling the efficient and consistent packaging of food products while maintaining safety, quality, and freshness. From automated filling and sealing systems to advanced inspection and labeling machines, packaging machinery plays a pivotal role in delivering food products to consumers in optimal condition. The machinery used in food packaging is designed to handle various product types, from solid and liquid foods to powders and granular items, each requiring specific handling, filling, and sealing techniques. In an industry where speed, hygiene, and precision are paramount, packaging machinery has evolved to include sophisticated features such as robotics, computer-controlled systems, and sensors that monitor critical parameters like weight, temperature, and fill levels. These innovations help manufacturers improve productivity, reduce waste, and ensure that food products meet regulatory standards and consumer expectations.

Global Packaging Regulations: FDA, EU, FSSAI, and Others FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration): The FDA ensures that food packaging materials are safe for contact with food in the United States. Under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), the FDA provides guidelines through the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 21. Key points include: • Food Contact Substances (FCS): Materials in contact with food must be either pre-approved or recognized as safe (GRAS). Packaging materials, including plastics, paper, and adhesives, must undergo tests to ensure they do not release harmful substances into food. • Migration Limits: The FDA sets allowable limits on the migration of substances from packaging into food, including chemicals from inks, coatings, and polymers. • Food Packaging Certification: Packaging manufacturers must confirm that their materials meet FDA standards for safety in food contact

The increasing global emphasis on sustainable and environmentally friendly energy alternatives has placed biofuels at the forefront of green energy innovation. Derived from agricultural biomass and organic waste, biofuels represent a promising substitute for conventional fossil fuels, particularly in agrarian economies where such feedstocks are abundantly available. Agricultural biomass includes crop residues such as rice straw, wheat husk, corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, and oilseed cakes. Meanwhile, organic waste comprises food waste, animal manure, municipal solid waste, and industrial organic residues. Converting these materials into biofuels not only reduces landfill burden and environmental pollution but also cuts down greenhouse gas emissions and promotes the development of rural and circular economies. A variety of biofuels—including biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel, biohydrogen, and syngas—can be produced through two major conversion pathways:
• Biochemical conversion, which involves microbial and enzymatic processes such as fermentation and anaerobic digestion.
• Thermochemical conversion, which includes pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion processes to transform biomass into energy-dense fuels.
Types of Liquid Biofuels
The term biofuel commonly refers to liquid fuels produced from recently living plant material, unlike fossil fuels derived from ancient biomass. Among these, ethanol and biodiesel are the most prevalent forms:
• Ethanol: A type of alcohol produced through fermentation, usually from sugar- or starch-based crops like corn, sugarcane, or cassava. Ethanol is used either as a fuel substitute or blended with gasoline to reduce carbon emissions in vehicles.
• Biodiesel: Produced through the transesterification of oils extracted from plants and seeds (such as soybean, sunflower, or palm), biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be used in standard diesel engines. It offers a biodegradable, less polluting alternative to petroleum-based diesel.

Successful onion cultivation begins with vigorous, disease-free seedlings and their timely establishment in the field. Seed quality, nursery-bed preparation, growing medium, nutrition, irrigation, weed control and protection against pests and diseases determine seedling performance. This chapter explains conventional and modern nursery-management practices, including raised beds, plug trays, protected structures, soilless media, fertigation and climate-controlled production. It also discusses seedling selection, hardening, transplanting age, spacing and field establishment. Mechanized, robotic and precision transplanting systems are examined as solutions to labour shortages and uneven planting. Climate-resilient nurseries, sensors and automation can further improve transplant survival, resource efficiency, uniformity, productivity and sustainability.

Processing extends onion availability and transforms perishable bulbs into stable, marketable products such as dehydrated flakes, powder, paste and pickles. Onion is also rich in phenolic acids, flavonols, anthocyanins and organosulphur compounds associated with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties. This chapter explains processing operations, quality preservation and the commercial importance of value-added onion products. It also addresses the large quantities of peels, outer scales and trimmings generated during processing. These residues contain quercetin, polyphenols, dietary fibre and other useful compounds that can be recovered for functional foods, nutraceuticals, natural antioxidants, biofuels and biodegradable materials, supporting waste reduction and a circular bioeconomy.

1. INTRODUCTION

During fermentation, the fruit wines have to be monitored for different parameters to know the progress of fermentation and to control the quality of the finished products. It is essential to maintain the quality of the products, for which it is necessary to keep a complete record of wine fermentation. One such form is the fermentation control record or fermentation logbook, which is kept to monitor and record fermentation progress. It includes the name of fruit, variety, original characteristics of juice/pulp, amelioration, tank number, inoculum type and quantities, sampling time, date of start of fermentation and completion. It should also have daily record of temperature of fermentation, total soluble solid or ^oBrix reading, titrable acidity and volatile acidity, racking time/date and other comments on the fermentation. Fermentation control records should be completed and all new wines be entered in the bulk wine book inventory, the annual supplemental records can be kept in a file entitled, for example ‘Vintage season 2018’.

Minimizing waste in agricultural and food production is increasingly recognized as a critical pathway toward environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and food security. Strategies such as waste prevention, material reuse, and resource recycling form the backbone of sustainable waste management in the agri-food chain—from production and processing to distribution and consumption. Globally, agriculture is under pressure to reduce its environmental footprint, with waste generation being a primary concern. Implementing integrated waste management practices across the agri-food sector enhances resource efficiency, improves soil health, creates value-added opportunities, and supports circular economy objectives. In the Indian context, where significant post-harvest losses and agro-industrial residues persist, such strategies are essential for advancing rural development, ecological sustainability, and economic resilience.

Minimization Strategies
Waste reduction starts at the production level with optimized crop planning and judicious input use. Precision agriculture tools—such as GIS mapping, soil health diagnostics, and sensor-based irrigation—enable efficient resource management and reduce chemical overuse. Practices like crop rotation, intercropping, and integrated pest management (IPM) further enhance productivity while minimizing environmental harm. Post-harvest losses, which can exceed 30% in India's fruit and vegetable sectors, are addressed through improved cold chain infrastructure, timely logistics, advanced packaging, and localized value addition. Digital interventions—such as price forecasting apps and e-market platforms—empower farmers to make informed decisions and reduce overproduction and spoilage.

Conventional fertilizers often exhibit low nutrient-use efficiency, resulting in nutrient losses, soil degradation, water contamination and unnecessary production costs. Nano-fertilizers offer controlled and targeted nutrient delivery through formulations engineered at the nanoscale. Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio can improve nutrient availability, plant uptake, growth, bulb quality and storage performance while reducing conventional fertilizer requirements. This chapter explains the nature, modes of action and potential benefits of nano-fertilizers in onion production. It also considers nano-biofertilizers, smart nutrient-delivery systems and nano-sensors. Particular attention is given to manufacturing cost, nanotoxicity, effects on soil microorganisms, farmer accessibility and the need for standardized safety and regulatory frameworks.

Efficient nutrient and water management is essential for achieving high onion productivity without degrading soil and water resources. Excessive fertilizer use, poor irrigation practices, groundwater depletion, nutrient imbalance and climate variability can reduce input efficiency and environmental sustainability. This chapter presents soil testing, integrated nutrient management, site-specific nutrient application, microbial interventions, residue management, nanotechnology and digital soil mapping. It also covers drip and sprinkler irrigation, scheduling, fertigation, mulching, rainwater harvesting and other water-conservation practices. Technologies such as SPAD meters, GreenSeeker, GPS, GIS, drones, remote sensing, sensors, artificial intelligence and IoT systems facilitate real-time monitoring, need-based application and climate-smart management of agricultural resources.

Introduction

There are large numbers of wheat based products such as fermented pan bread, flat breads including chapati, biscuits, noodles and pasta products. Each product has its own specific requirements. For example fermented pan bread needs wheat with higher protein content, stronger and extensible gluten. Chapati requires hard wheat with high protein content and medium gluten strength. Waxy wheats have been found associated with improved shelf life of breads. White salted Japanese noodles need partial waxy wheats with soft grain characteristics and medium protein content and gluten strength. Partial waxy wheats with comparatively lower amylose content and higher starch paste viscosity improve texture of white salted noodles. Yellow alkaline noodles need comparatively harder wheat with medium strong gluten and without waxy trait. Pasta made from durum wheats requires stronger gluten, high protein content and higher content of yellow pigments. In this chapter detailed account of both fermented and flat breads will be given.

INTRODUCTION

Drying or dehydration is defined as the removal of moisture from its initial level to a level which renders food materials safe for subsequent storage. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer operation in which heat is supplied externally to evaporate moisture and air is forced through the bed to carry away the moisture. Drying is the oldest technique to preserve food materials. Advantages of drying include reduction in water activity, enhancement of shelf life, maintenance of flavor and nutritive value, and reduction in packaging and transportation costs. When the water activity of the dried product is reduced to below 0.6, most microorganisms do not grow and the rates of other deteriorative reactions are substantially reduced.

INTRODUCTION

Food being the basic need of all humans and other living organisms, the production and processing of food is a continuous activity with several new procedures and technologies adoption; thereby the quality of food needs an emphasis which also protects the consumers by providing safe and suitable food. The contaminated foods, food borne illness outbreaks though at times referred to poor consumer handling, commitment for provision of safe food to consumers is also a Governments concern. In the recent years, food safety measures through Food Safety programmes and increase in awareness are being followed. The food production in our country is the most promising sector which is the cause for white revolution and green revolution. India ranks first in the world in production of cereals and milk and second largest producers of fruits and vegetables. India stands second in inland fish production. It is second largest exporter of rice and so on. Food processing sector has a great potential which covers a wide spectrum of products encompassing agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries. But the growth of food processing industries in our country is rather slow. However, to encourage, the government is providing lot of incentives in the recent years.

MAC : It stands for modified atmospheric coating.

Macaroni : Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes.

Macaroni wheat : It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon : A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut.

Mace : An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg.