eChapters

7.1 Introduction

Evaporation is an unit operation which converts a liquid into a vapour, leaving behind a concentrated solution or a higher boiling liquid. In other words, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution containing a desired product. Heat is the main tool in evaporation, and the process occurs more readily at high temperature and low pressures. Removal of water from foods provides microbiological stability, reduces deteriorative chemical reactions, and reduces transportation and storage costs. Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying methods in that the final product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a solid. It also differs from distillation, since the vapours produced in the evaporator are not further divided into fractions.

5.1 Introduction

Food is the basic requirement of every living being and it provides physical, mental as well as emotional satisfaction. Globally, there are many food enterprises which provide this basic necessity across the nations irrespective of nature of origin and climatic condition. Food companies are required to provide products at certain quality parameters so as to maintain the uniformity in the food system. Hence, food quality can be defined as a total of traits and criteria which characterize food as regard to its nutritional value, sensory value, convenience as well as the safety for a consumer’s health. Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This includes external factors as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss and consistency), texture, and flavor; factors such as grade standards and internal (chemical, physical, microbial). Due to the various food risks, all over the world the quality regulation authorities have intensified the efforts to improve food quality. Some of the quality related systems are obligatory by law while other is voluntary which are to be implemented by the various food chain members.

Many companies are forced to improve safety and quality of their products by implementing the quality and safety assurance and management system because of growing consumers’ expectations and concerns as regards food quality and safety.

In order to attain maximum profit and decrease the flaws, a new system was developed and followed by various companies all over the world. This new system is known as Six Sigma. The application of this system has the capability to reduce the losses considerably by reviewing the process parameters and increasing the profit exponentially. It constitutes a systematic approach to assure that food products have particular traits at any stage of production and distribution.

8.1 Introduction

Electron Microscopes were developed due to the limitations of Light Microscopes which are limited by the physics of light to 500x or 1000x magnification and a resolution of 0.2 micrometers. In the early 1930’s this theoretical limit had been reached and there was a scientific desire to see the fine details of the interior structures of organic cells (nucleus, mitochondria etc.). This required 10,000x plus magnification which was just not possible using Light Microscopes. The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) was the first type of Electron Microscope to be developed and is patterned exactly on the Light Transmission Microscope except that a focused beam of electrons is used instead of light to see through the specimen. It was developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in Germany in 1931. The first Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) debuted in 1942 with the first commercial instruments around 1965. Its late development was due to the electronics involved in scanning the beam of electrons across the sample. Electron microscope has been a valuable tool in the development of scientific theory and it contributed greatly to biology, medicine and material sciences. This wide spread use of electron microscopes is based on the fact that they permit the observation and characterization of materials on a nanometer (nm) to micrometer (µm) scale. Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. This examination can yield information about the topography (surface features of an object), morphology (shape and size of the particles making up the object), composition (the elements and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them) and crystallographic information (how the atoms are arranged in the object). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be detected and that contain information about the sample surface topography and composition. SEM can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer. The combination of higher magnification, larger depth of focus, greater resolution, and ease of sample observation makes the SEM one of the most heavily used instruments in research areas today.

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

1. INTRODUCTION

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Twenty different types of amino acids occur naturally in proteins. Proteins differ from each other according to the type, number and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide backbone. Proteins are the important constituents of foods for a number of reasons. They are a major source of energy, as well as containing essential amino-acids, like lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and valine which are essential to human health, but which the body cannot synthesize. Proteins are also the major structural components of many natural foods, often determining their overall texture, e.g., tenderness of meat or fish products. Isolated proteins are often used in foods as ingredients because of their unique functional properties, i.e., their ability to provide desirable appearance, texture or stability.

Proteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus and also play an important role in food preparation. The final quality of many food products are influenced by how the proteins are treated while food is being prepared.

Abstract

Food lost during the production chain is referred to as postharvest loss. Reducing postharvest loss can effectively feed starving mouths while conserving resources and decreasing the pressure to produce more. There are five main areas where postharvest loss can be reduced – harvest, storage, transportation, processing, and retail. New approaches and technologies in each of these areas will increase the amount of food available for human consumption. The total loss due to poor post- harvest processing of agricultural products in India when valued in terms of monetary reflects a tremendous loss in the economy. Annual value of harvest and post-harvest losses of major agricultural produces at national level to be of the order of Rs. 92,651 Crore calculated using production data of 2012-13 at 2014 wholesale prices. Deficits in food items or financial loss should not have occurred if postharvest losses were reduced through proper processing and preservation from harvest to consumption. Both the government and private sector need to invest in research so as to improve and modernize post-harvest facilities for attaining more efficient market infrastructure and distribution channels. Research and extension activities have to be closely coordinated particularly in the public sector for the benefit of farmers, traders and consumers.

Abstract

Micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiencies affect more than 2 billion people worldwide and are especially prevalent in developing countries including India. Conditions due to vitamin mineral deficiencies account for 7.3 percent of the global disease burden.Iron deficiency (anemia), vitamin A and iodine deficiency disorders continue to be a grim public health problem. Thus, elimination of vitamin and mineral deficiencies is essential to improve the overall health of the masses as well as to sustain economic growth and national development. Food fortification is an effective intervention to deliver vitamin and mineral rich foods to large populations. In addition to the prevention of vitamin and mineral deficiencies, food fortification is an effective measure to raise vitamin and mineral levels by moving the population towards consuming recommended dietary allowances for most micronutrients-making it a long–term and a sustainable strategy. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 146.3 million tonnes and the consumption rate of milk and milk products by all age groups of people are high.Therefore, fortification of milk with mineral and vitamins could be a safe and effective strategy to fight these micronutrient deficiencies.

6.0. Introduction

Food is the basic need of all living organisms and hence, its quality should be given top priority. Food processing involves number of unit operations for material handling and there are always chances that the food may be contaminated or adulterated. The food is said to be contaminated if food is injurious to health and contain filthy, putrid rotten odour of insect pests etc. and can affect a large number of the populations at a time and hazards may occur. However, a food is said to be adulterated if it contains any other substance which affects the nature and quality product or substance is substituted with cheaper substance. So, it is essential to set the minimum limits of the desirable characteristics required and the maximum limits of the undesirable components that the food should contain. This helps to set common standards for commodities and to prevent confusion among the consumers.

7.0. Introduction

The food safety is one of the most important of assurance system required for global expansion of trade between developed and developing countries. Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use is known as food safety concept. It is set of conditions and measures taken during the food chain like production, processing, storage and distribution in order to ensure that, the product consumption does not represent a risk to the human health.

Introduction

Meat derived from animals are subjected to various contaminations from number of sources. The animal itself is a major contributor of both pathogenic and spoilage organisms. Further contamination may be introduced from water used, equipment used for product preparation, from the meat handlers and the surrounding environment. Microbiological problems such as food poisoning or spoilage may arise when the desired effect is not achieved and is usually due to errors in the handling or processing procedures. The detection and rapid correction of such errors and their future prevention is a major objective of any quality control system.

In traditional approach to meat and meat product quality control system, only the samples of the final product were analyzed by laboratory test to check for compliance with specifications. However, the responsibility for control of hazards rests with individuals involved in all stages from farm to ultimate consumer. And the control of hazards at each stages of food chain may be achieved by Hazard Analysis Critical control point (HACCP). Hazard analysis critical control point is an internationally recognized system that helps to ensure the manufacture of safe food products. HACCP is not a zero risk system but rather a system designated to minimize the risk of food safety hazards. HACCP concept is a systematic and rational approach Firstly by consideration of the hazards i.e., microorganisms or their toxins, that need to be controlled in a specific operation by structured hazard analysis and secondly on the identification of the most effective means of controlling the identified hazards. This system, by focusing attention on the factor that directly affects the microbiological safety and quality of meat foods, eliminates wasteful use of resources and superfluous consideration. As a consequence, the cost/benefit relationships are more favorable. The system is applicable at all levels of meat food chain from farm production through processing, transporting, merchandising and ultimate use in the meat food service establishment or at home. Ensuring food safety and quality is the responsibility of all links in the food chain. Now a day’s food consumers are very much health conscious and they want their food to be safe and of good quality. As meat being highly perishable and high risk food product, it is very much imperative on the part of meat and meat products producers and exporters to produce safe and quality meat to stand in the competitive world and further hygienic meat processing is important not only to provide safe and wholesome meat but to provide a good public image and to increase consumer demand.

Wheat Production and Consumption

Wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum and the millets are the main crops that provide nutrition to people worldwide. The production of grains in different countries depends on the various factors such as water availability, soil conditions, temperature, cultural and economical are most critical factors. Nutritional needs of the developing countries are more dependent on cereal grains compared to the developed ones. Approximately 60% of the calorie requirements in the developing countries are met from cereals. The International Grains Council (IGC) forecasted for total grains production in 2017-18 to 2.079 billion tonnes. There is a need to have major research to increase their productivity, reduce storage losses, enhance efficiency of processing and to ensure food safety in the entire supply chain. Among them, wheat is one of the most important crop species and is a staple food for about 35% of the world population. Wheat is unique among the grains because of its protein type, which when mixed with the water by mechanical forces yields into viscoelastic dough due to the formation of gluten. This unique property of dough is capable of retaining the gases which are produced by yeast or baking powder resulting in the production of an array of leavened products such as bread, cookie and cake.

Wheat is also an important source of dietary proteins for humans but like other cereals, it is deficient in the essential amino acid lysine. Wheat crop is adaptable to the wide range of growth conditions compared to other major cereals and hence it is cultivated widely throughout the world. Wheat cereal is the major dominating staple in the North Africa, Central and West Asia, providing the 50% of the calorie requirement in the region. The world wheat production is 740 million tonnes, with China ranking first by producing 125 million tonnes of wheat annually. Other major wheat producing countries are India, USA, Russia Australia, France and Canada. The global per capita consumption of wheat is about 66 kg, which varies widely in different regions. In Algeria, Egypt, Israel and other Middle East as well as Eastern Europe the consumption of wheat flour is high (150 kg/year). The food uses of wheat in developing countries are more than 80%, while in developed countries it is less than 50%. The consumption of the wheat in developing countries is significantly increasing due to globalization and growing economies. After rice, wheat is a major cereal crop in India and contributes to more than 50% of the total calories. It is grown in the cooler regions of India during the period of November to April. In grain production, rice ranks first with the production of about 105 million tonnes per year. In India, total grain production is 136 million tonnes for the year 2016-17 as per the International Grains Council. India ranks second in the production of wheat in the world and produce about 95 million tonnes annually. The bread wheat (astevum) contributes to approximately 94% while durum wheat is 4% and dicoccum wheat accounts to 2%.

Introduction

Food is a culture, emotion, hospitality and prestige which is closely knitted with tradition. Traditional knowledge is a community based functional knowledge system which is developed, preserved and refined by generations through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. It includes beliefs, values, and practices gathered from the practical experience of older generation, and its whole function is survival and development of culture of people. Traditional foods, originated from ancestral kitchens are developed through ages, invented, modified, utilised and evolved to improve nutritional and social wellbeing of the people around the world. Most of them are culture specific, region specific, environment specific, community specific and season specific. These foods are socially, culturally and economically important and provide food security, enhance livelihood and improve nutritional and social wellbeing of people. Food culture arises out of the place of a people’s origin and so traditional local foods hold the potential to bind and stabilise communities and enable a cultural continuity through conserving their histories. Indian cuisine is represented as a wide spectrum of food cultures with distinctive regional differences and preferences (Achaya, 1998).

In managing diseases of horticultural crops, pathogen quiescence has important implications in timing prophylaxis, the reduction of stresses that trigger the transition of quiescence to aggression, and managing the harvested crop to prolong quiescence to the point at which yield is no longer affected. The inception of pathogen quiescence and its maintenance on or within the host implies a dynamic equilibrium between the host, the pathogen, and their environment. Physiological and physical changes in the host, its environment, or both trigger changes in that equilibrium to permit the pathogen to resume aggression. Microorganisms lying on the host surface constitute a potential latent infection; as can be the case with Botrytis cinerea conidia that are prevented from germinating by antagonistic bacteria on leaf surfaces (William R. Jarvis, 1994). Quiescence can run the spectrum from the ungerminated spore; through symptomless, internal infections; to visible but nonexpanding lesions, such as ghost spot of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) to expanding lesions on banana caused by Colletotrichum musae and on avocado caused by C. gloeosporioides.

A latent, dormant, or quiescent parasitic relationship is a condition in which the pathogen spends long periods during the host’s life in a quiescent stage until, under specific circumstances, it becomes active. Epidemiologists might refer to the period from spore landing until the parasitized tissue produces new spores as a latent period (Dov Prusky, 1996). The term “period of quiescence” is referred to differentiate the quiescent parasitic relationship from the latent period. Quiescence can be enforced during the various processes of fungal attack, which suggests that quiescence may or could occur during any of the processes leading from fungal germination to colonization.

Introduction

Food is the basis to sustain a healthy life as evidenced from its consumption through centuries by human. There are plenty of plenty of foodstuffs available these days as part of new product development and flexible global participation of researchers and food technocrats. Their researches brings a lot reforms in traditional recipes through newest technological concepts (functional or nutraceutical) that address much of safety aspect for consumers health and is the prime focused concern for now (Keservani, et al 2014). Even than strict labeling policies is the present hour need to stay fit and fine. Safe and wholesome supply of foods, high pace food demands, increase in processing aspect, minimization of fraudulent practices are the key points that somehow require laws and standards during transportation, storage, marketing and storage.

Nation’s growth resides in their healthy people that contribute flawless to acquire achievements in overall growth of country. So availability of healthy food is must which can only be governed through strict standards and regulatory agency’s regulation. Journey of food from “Production to consumption”, “Farm to fork”, “Unstable to table” and “Boat to throat” are the activities where these agencies abide their regulations by way of laws and standards. Indian market somehow lacking its policy to organize food regulation appropriately hence is segmented in two types of food products viz;

Introduction

Baking is not a new concept to us. Baking process dates thousand years back since the Paleolithic age. During those days, the baking was done by simply grinding the grains, mixed with water and baked on the hot rocks. The bread produced that time was not leavened but flat. Ancient Egyptians have the credit for development of baking between 2600-1200 BC. Roman Empire also had the popularity of the art of baking and bakeries were in existence in Europe too during Middle Age. Baking was considered a highly respected profession under the Roman Empire. The art of baking has travelled a long journey since then. The bakery and confectionary has undergone a gradual evolution with time. Great technical progress stared in the nineteenth century. Development of automatic machines reduced the task of the manual labour and because of this development the bakers could perform many more tasks with the machines. Today’s baking has a dependency on the machines. All the work is performed by the automated machines whereas the bakers only control the machine operations. The baking process has become easier, the efficiency has increased and the quality of the products has improved because of these high-tech machines. The preparation of bakery products using traditional methods has also improved over the time to minimize the energy and time consumption. Today’s consumer is very much concerned about his/her health and look for the healthy options in baked products. The trend has led to various innovative formulations for the baked products so that the health benefits may also be provided not only the calories. This chapter will discuss various advancements and trends in different types of bakery and confectionary products.

Introduction

Over the years, processed food industry has become the largest growing industry in the world. The convenience food industry with the state of the art technology has been proved very successful in reaching every household and have started replacing fresh and healthy foods with the processed ones (Srinivasan and Shende, 2016).

Demand for processed and convenience foods are constantly on rise and convenience food segment is rising by leaps and bounds. Changing life style, food habits, displacement of rural population to urban centres, insufficient time to prepare healthy food and changing socio economic needs have led to the industrialization of the food supply and resulted in the development of convenience foods and today a great variety of the same are available for sale to the consumer throughout the world (Tillotson, 2003).

These convenience foods are available readily, convenient, inexpensive with pleasing organoleptic quality, requires minimal or no preparation before consumption. Varieties of convenience foods which are available in the market play a prominent role in the food choice of today’s consumer, and they include frozen and canned vegetables, bakery products, soups, sauces, prepared meat and fish, chilled and frozen dairy products as well as ready to eat and shelf stable products (Tillotson, 2003).

Rapid switchover of the consumer from the traditional dining practices to fast food centres, generally feed on quick and easily made products called fast foods, often termed as unhealthy junk foods. These foods are rich in saturated fatty acids, several refined components, high carbohydrates etc., which ultimately lead to the negative impact on physical and mental health of the consumer, contributing to several chronic diseases such as cardiovascular complications, cancer, atherosclerosis, liver disease, type 11 diabetes (Veggie et al., 2018) etc.

Therefore, focussing much about the health of the consumer, there is a great need for a healthy and a balanced diet to meet the basic needs of the human body (Mendes et al 2013) with an appealing organoleptic properties and appearance.

Introduction

Fermentation of food dates back to ancient practice of wine making. Fermented foods reflect culture and tradition of folklore and emphasis their close association with nature. Various methods employed for fermenting foods aimed in food preservation to reduce wastage; however lactic acid fermentation enhanced nutrition content and improved organoleptic properties. Experimental evidences on benefits on health and wellness on consumption of fermented foods are being reported. Fermentation process used for preparation of indigenous or traditional foods often depend entirely on natural microflora on the surface of raw material and containers used; Practices of fermenting foods are passed on as traditional know how to generations as a legacy. The fermented food manufacturers rely on commercial starter cultures, and highly reliant on indigenous materials as microbial collections are unique and highly variable according to region and products. Therefore, isolation of novel organisms, development of newer products and interactions are being explored using variety of fermented foods obtained through traditional processes

Introduction

Fermented foods and beverages comprise an indispensable part of the human diet. They can be generally defined as those foods and beverages produced via controlled microbial growth and conversion of various substrates using either enzymes or as whole cell itself, as shown in Figure 1.

1. INTRODUCTION

According to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1968) food is “an article that provides taste, aroma or nutritive value”. The term 'health food' is generally used to describe foods that are considered to be beneficial to health beyond a normal diet required for human nutrition. Though, the term is not precisely defined by any regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) however, “Health food” is sometimes used as an umbrella term encompassing natural foods, organic foods, whole foods, and sometimes dietary supplements or may also refer to functional foods. The use of foods for promoting health and relieving symptoms is as old as the practice of phyto-medicine for treating or preventing various types of illness and have been documented in Hippocratic and Vedic texts and the canons of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Therefore, “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, quoted by Hippocrates about 2,500 years ago, is certainly the tenet of today which is receiving overwhelming interest. In the recent years, rapid urbanization, industrialization, increase in per capita income etc. in developing countries like India, have resulted in dramatic lifestyle changes leading to lifestyle related diseases like coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and hypertension. The transition from a traditional to modern lifestyle, consumption of diets rich in fat and calories combined with a high level of mental stress has compounded the problem further.

According to Pasteur statements which one of the following is true

a) Living organisms discriminate between stereo isomers

b) Fermentation

c) Living organisms doesnít discriminate

d) Both a and b

6.1. Introduction

Food packaging has a significant contribution in preserving the quality of the food throughout the processing and storage. The package containing food should maintain the quality of the product for the longest time under particular environmental conditions. The quality of various food and beverages decline with the passage of time and food become unacceptable to consume. The time in which food deteriorates and become unacceptable is termed as shelf-life. The degradation of quality with time under storage conditions depends upon intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. The shelf-life study of a product provides important information to manufacturer and consumer regarding the quality of the food product throughout the storage time.

11.1. Introduction

Food packaging is the integral part of the food industry. Packaging may be defined as the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance. If the device or container performs one or more of these functions, it is considered a package. The major roles of the packaging of food are the containment and preservation of foods by protecting the food from physical, chemical and microbial spoilage. Besides, packaging performs some other functions like communication which means giving the information about the product, transportation of the food production and so on. Food products are classified as perishable, semi- perishable and non-perishable food based on the spoilage. Selecting appropriate packaging material and packaging technique for various food products like meat and poultry, fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, bakery and confectionery and beverages is essential to maintain the quality of food product. Selection of the ideal packaging material for specific food requires prior knowledge about the packaging materials and its properties, type of the food products and specific spoilage mechanism of the particular food. Above all, from economical point of view, packaging material cost and capital for the establishment of the packaging technique also plays crucial role in selection of a particular packaging material or technique. 

Highlights • Banana leather can be enriched with microencapsulated ? – 3 fatty acid for value addition. • Blanching can destroy more than 80% of vitamin C content. • Henderson and Pabis model can better predict the drying kinetics of banana leather. Introduction The ever increasing demand for functional foods having numerous health benefits has been an active research ground for the food scientists around the globe. Till date, many food products have been formulated to deliver functionalities by value addition with bioactive compounds (Carvalho Barros et al., 2020). These products have been extensively studied and proved to be beneficial, especially for elder age group against various metabolic syndrome and health complications. Functional foods are edible products fortified with compounds having additional health and safety benefits such as vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds (Granato et al., 2020). One such example of a nutritionally dense food product with the potential of fortification to meet certain health benefits is fruit leather.

Introduction

The COVID 19 pandemic is threatening food systems and international food security. According to the World Food Programme (WFP), that says the amount of individuals facing crisis hunger is anticipated to virtually double this year to 265 million. Already, quite 820 million individuals don’t get enough food to eat, and another a hundred thirty five million individuals face acute hunger or starvation. Increase that, the economic destabilization caused by COVID-19, and another a hundred thirty million people are in danger of starvation by the top of 2020, says WFP. The quickness with that a health crisis transforms in an exceedingly hunger crisis shows however fragile is our food systems to shocks of any nature.

F- distribution: A probability density function that is used in analysis of variance and is a function of the ratio of two independent random variables each of which has a chi square distribution and is divided by its number of degrees of freedom.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 151).

Factor VIII: It is a glycoprotein based clotting factor of blood plasma that is essential for blood clotting and is absent or inactive in hemophilic patients. It is also called alsoantihemophilic factor

Facultative: Possessing the capacity to survive in more than one type of environment.

Faculative anaerobeic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

There is wastage and loss of food during its journey from production to consumption. Approximately one-third of the massive 1.3 billion tonnes of food produced annually goes to waste due to various factors such as poor
handling after harvesting, unfavorable storage conditions, insect infestations, and diseases. To combat these losses, synthetic chemicals have historically been used to control pathogens and pests, but concerns over their potential health risks have led to restrictions on their usage. In response, researchers are now focusing on developing safer and more effective physical treatments for disinfecting and protecting horticultural produce. This chapter specifically explores the advantages of using heat treatment as one such method, discussing how it helps maintain the quality of fruits and vegetables while simultaneously reducing postharvest losses.
Some of the heat processing methods are discussed below:
Fruit juices, RTS and nectars are preserved by pasteurization or by using chemical preservatives. Squashes, crushes, syrups and cordials are preserved by adding chemical preservative like potassium metabisulphite or sodium benzoate.

Introduction
Fruits and vegetables are an important part of the human diet as they provide the necessary nutrition, essential minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, dietary fiber, etc., required for maintaining proper health. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China. Comparison of area under horticultural crops during 2011-12 and 2021-22 indicate substantial improvement from 18.5 million ha to 27.6 million ha with a simultaneous increase in production from 215.04 million MT to about 333.25 million MT respectively in the country within a span of just one decade (Table 1.1). The credit for this spectacular growth in area and production goes to the sustained efforts of the central and state governments for the launch of several farmers’/ growers’ welfare schemes viz., National Horticulture Mission (NHM), Horticulture Mission for Northeast and Himalayan states (HMNEH), Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH); R&D support by the ICAR and State Agriculture & Horticulture Universities, extension agencies/Krishi Vigyan Kendra and proactive farmers and orchardists. However, the increase in production has still not kept pace with the improvement in infrastructure for post-harvest handling, management, processing, and value addition. Various studies still indicate that under normal conditions more than 15-20% of the produce goes to waste from production to consumption which in monetar terms accounts for huge economic losses. A recent study sponsored by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries Government of India and conducted by NABARD Consultancy Services has indicated that about 19.33 million MT worth Rs 58013.71 Crores of fruit & vegetables goes to waste annually as postharvest loss (4.87-15.05%) in various channels from harvesting to consumption (NABCONS,2022). The condition becomes even worse when there is a glut in the market, road blockades, or seasonal vagaries, and farmers are forced to leave their produce in the field itself without harvesting or dispose it at throwaway prices. Such a situation can, however, be controlled by diverting thisproduce to processing for conversion into a number of value-added products for its later use in human consumption. Thus, processing and preservation of horticultural crops have now become a necessity rather than a luxury.

Introduction
Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food preservation, which allows the preservation of taste, texture, and nutritional quality in foods better than any other methods. The freezing process is a combination of the beneficial effects of low temperatures at which micro-organisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular metabolic reactions are delayed. Freezing is generally referred to as a unit operation in which the temperature of food is reduced below the freezing point and a proportion of water undergoes a change in state to form ice crystals. Immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause a lowering of water activity of the food. Thus, reduction in water activity and use of low temperatures coupled with some pre-treatments like blanching is the basis for food preservation by freezing. Fruits such as strawberries, oranges, raspberries, black currants, and vegetables like green peas, green beans, sweet corn, spinach, carrots, sprouts, and potatoes are examples of commercially frozen fruits and vegetables.
The frozen food market is one of the largest and most dynamic sectors o the food industry. Despite considerable competition between the frozen food industry and other sectors, large quantities of frozen foods are being consumed all over the world. The frozen vegetable industry mostly grew after the development of scientific methods for blanching and processing in the 1940s. The commercialization history of frozen fruits is older than frozen vegetables. The commercial freezing of small fruits and berries began in the eastern part ofthe United States in about 1905.

1. Introduction:- Understanding Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Core Principles of GLP
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines Good Laboratory Practice as “a managerial quality control system that governs the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and thus, environmental safety studies are well planned, executed/ performed, vigilantly monitored, properly recorded, reported, and finally archived”. This definition highlights that Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a comprehensive framework focused on ensuring the quality and integrity of the entire study lifecycle, rather than dictating the scientific validity of the research itself. The primary goal of GLP is to ensure process integrity and data traceability, which are essential for the regulatory acceptance of safety data for a variety of products. These products include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, cosmetics, veterinary drugs, food additives, feed additives, and industrial chemicals, all of which undergo non-clinical testing to assess their potential health and environmental risks. It is important to note that GLP principles specifically apply to these non-clinical studies and exclude research involving human subjects. The OECD Principles of GLP are internationally recognized and serve as the basis for GLP regulations in numerous countries worldwide. These principles outline the responsibilities of key personnel involved in non-clinical studies, including test facility management, the study director, study personnel, and quality assurance personnel. Furthermore, they establish minimum standards concerning the suitability of facilities and equipment to perform studies, as well as the necessity for comprehensive Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to guide all aspects of laboratory operations. The core principles of GLP encompass a wide range of elements critical to ensuring the quality and integrity of laboratory studies. These OECD principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) include: the proper organization team and personnel staff members within the testing facility, the well establishment of a robust quality assurance programme, the better suitability and proper maintenance of various necessary facilities, the efficient management of apparatus, materials, and reagents, the characterization and control of test systems, the handling of test and reference items, the development and adherence to Standard Operating

The establishment of a technology transfer office is an important and complex process for an organization. It needs careful planning to ensure its long-term sustainability. Before establishing a TTO, it is essential to evaluate whether institution’s core mission includes research commercialization, and if the volume and quality of its research output justify the need for an inhouse TTO. For institutions that may not meet all criteria, those institutions can collaborate or outsource for TTO services. It is also important to decide about its operational scope, funding, management, and for what kind of issues the office should develop a policy. There is no “right” way to set up a TTO, but successful TTO does require considering some key issues. This chapter outlines key steps and considerations for establishing a TTO. It also explains what physical infrastructures are needed, manpower, outlines the responsibilities and powers of TTOs.
2.1 Evaluating the need for a TTO
Establishing a TTO is an important step for any research focused organization. But before initiating a planning process for a new TTO, the organization must review its relevance by considering a few fundamental points:
Key considerations for institutions
1. Is institution’s mission focused on “research commercialization” If an institute’s primary mission is education, or it does not support research it might not be justified to create a TTO. For such institutions, it usually makes better sense to seek alternative solutions to the occasional technology transfer without the expense of a formal office. But institutions with strong research commercialization focus, a TTO has the ability to contribute meaningfully to the mission. The Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM), USA has identified following key motivations for initiating academic technology transfer:

Technical and Economic Challenges in Advanced Packaging The implementation of advanced packaging technologies comes with a range of challenges. Technically, developing materials that are both highly effective and environmentally friendly is a complex task. Packaging must not only protect products and ensure their safety, but also minimize its ecological footprint. From an economic perspective, these advanced solutions tend to be more expensive, which can make it difficult for smaller businesses or those in cost-sensitive markets to adopt them on a large scale. Furthermore, the need for efficient production methods, scalable new materials, and affordable solutions continues to be a significant hurdle for the industry. Balancing Performance with Environmental Goals One of the primary challenges in packaging is achieving

Non-thermal preservation technologies inhibit microorganisms and enzymes without relying primarily on high temperatures. They are designed to preserve freshness, colour, flavour, texture and heat-sensitive nutrients more effectively than conventional thermal treatments. These methods employ hydrostatic pressure, electrical energy, electromagnetic radiation, reactive species or mechanical forces to damage microbial cells and disrupt essential biological functions. The chapter examines high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, cold plasma, ultrasound, irradiation, pulsed light and edible coatings. It explains their operating principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional implications. These technologies offer promising alternatives for producing safe, minimally processed foods, although equipment costs, process optimisation and industrial scalability remain important considerations.

Abstract

The applications of enzymes are awe inspiring marvels of nature. Scientists can use enzymes to explore all aspects of biology; from molecules to cells to tissues to organs to organism as a whole. For the purpose of food and drinks, enzymes have been exploited by men for thousands of years without really knowing what they are and how do they work? Enzymes have played a pivotal role in many aspects of life since the dawn of life. Today, biocatalysis is being used as a useful alternative to chemical process technology. The fact that enzymes work under much milder conditions oftemperature, pressure and acidity, thus, obviate harsh processing conditions and thereby decrease the possibility of damage to heat labile substrates and save energy. Enzyme technology being eco-friendly can be justifiably termed as‘Green technology’. Due to their high specificity and high catalytic rate, enzymes prevent wastage and reduce time of processing / manufacturing, respectively. The ability of enzymes to act on wide variety of substrates has made them useful tools to exploit cheaper starting material in food industry. Reportedly, over 45% of the enzymes produced are being used in food industry and remaining is shared by detergent (34.4%), textile (11%), leather (2.8%) paper and pulp (1.2%) and other industries (5.6%). Enzymes serve a myriad of functions in food processing, from maximizing juice extraction of pectin-rich fruits to extending shelf-life in baked goods through slowing starch retro-gradation. Indian food processing industry has seen significant growth and changes over the past few years. Though, the market of enzymes is increasing at a fast pace but most of the enzymes of the food sector are coming from overseas. Seeing the unparallel role of enzymes in food processing sector as in multifaceted domains, the researchers should emphasize upon finding novel enzymes and explore their untapped commercial benefits using modern techniques of enzyme engineering, immobilization and biotechnological interventions.

Beverage: It includes all drinks whether they are fermented or unfermented, prepared from fruits or non-fruit, sweetened or unsweetened eg. tea, coffee, coca cola, cider, maaza are all beverages.

Fruit Beverages : Beverage which is prepared partly or fully from fruit juice or pulps with or without additives eg. pure fruit juice, squash, cordial, RTS beverage etc.

Non-fruit Beverage : Beverage which does not contain any fruit part eg. Coca cola, pepsi, sherbet etc.

Unfermented Juice or Pure Fruit Juice: This is the natural juice pressed out of the fruit and practically its composition remains unaltered during preparation and preservation. No additives like sugar, acid, water etc. are added. eg apple juice, orange juice.

Fruit Juice Beverage: This is the fruit juice that has been considerably altered in composition by adding water, sugar, acid, flavour, colours, preservatives etc. before consumption. It may or may not be diluted before it is served as a drink eg. squashes, nectars, appetizers etc.

Liberalized economies and evolving businessstrategies push variousindustries to achieve a competitive edge both in the domestic and international markets. Food industry especially, works on the bedrock of quality of products and services in order to attract and retain customers. In this new world of economic order, customers can select from wide range of products and services that are available in the market.

Food safety is a discipline ensuring safe consumption of food without any injuries to human health. It is multifaceted and influenced by various factors including, food processing, handling and practices, consumer demand and their knowledge, globalization of world food trade, changes in food consumption pattern (Chen et al., 2020).

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

Introduction

For many years it has been an elusive task to provide a precise definition as to what constitutes quality in wheat. Each country has its own traditions in bread and other bakery products. Quality will mean different things to a miller, a baker, a grain handler or a plant breeder. As the baking industry becomes increasingly specialized, specific qualities are sought. Even among those wheat varieties generally recognized as having desirable quality traits, the influence of environment can be substantial, and this necessitates a high level of skill on the part of grain buyers to survey the current year’s crop and blend the wheat for a specific end-use. This genotype X environment effect on quality also limits the capacity of end-users to source identity-preserved wheat from a narrow geographic area. Those of us engaged in the field of plant breeding are concerned primarily with those traits that can be manipulated genetically, and we study their stability under a range of climatic conditions. Constraints in time, cost, and sample availability usually necessitate the use of predictive tests during early generations, followed by milling and baking tests on advanced lines that have met a number of agronomic, disease and predictive quality criteria.

Introduction

Dough is a complex mixture of flour constituents, water, salt and other ingredients depending upon the requirements of end-products. It is the principal intermediate stage in the transformation of wheat into different end-use products. Rheological properties of dough determine the behaviour of dough during mixing, rounding and molding used in making different products and also effect on the quality of finished product. Therefore, understanding the various features of dough rheology and their relations with product quality is important. The importance is enhanced further because of mechanization and automation of baking industry. Dough is composed of continuous phase in which gas cells are dispersed. The continuous phase is called “dough phase”. It consists of starch granules embedded in protein matrix along with some lipids, cell remnants and yeast cells in fermented dough. Gas production and retention is the most comprehensive quality requirements of the dough for bread making. The ability of the wheat dough to retain gas during fermentation and oven rise is unique. This depends on the ability of the dough to be stretched into thin membranes because of protein phase.

Introduction

Wheat is the most important cereal crop to the human kind. It is the main source of energy and nutrition in human diet. Wheat is consumed in the form of large number of end products as chapati, bread, biscuit, cakes, pretzels, noodles and pasta products. Millions of people are involved in milling, baking and pasta products industry with huge turnover per annum. However, each end-use product of wheat has it’s own specific requirement for example basically hard wheats along with strong gluten and high protein content are used for bead making. Soft wheat with weak gluten and low protein content are required for biscuit making Souza et al. (1994). Durum (tetraploid) wheat is used for pasta products as macaroni, vermicelli and spheghatti and Dicoccum for therapeautic purposes. Often chemical improvers are used to improve the dough properties for these products. Most of these chemicals have been banned because of their toxic effects. Therefore, only alternative is to develop varieties suited to meet the requirements of these end-use products. This needs better understanding of molecular basis of grain quality to accelerate breeding for producing wheat varieties for each end-use product separately. Storage proteins are the major component of grain which determines end-product quality. In this chapter detailed structure, genetics and functionality of gluten proteins are described.

INTRODUCTION

Food processing as a technological regime is undergoing a revolutionary change in terms of conception, product and process design and energetics. The conventional approach of a food processor is to develop products with a long shelf-life in user friendly packaging systems. Food processors are usually bothered about sensory attributes and microbiological profiles without much emphasis on the fate of heat labile nutritional and nutraceutical components. The changing consumer perception is slowly but steadily leading towards emergence of novel technologies without depending upon conventional thermal processing. A few years before, non-thermal techniques have emerged for food processing and preservation, but these techniques were restricted to framing of fundamentals with regard to the inactivation of vegetative and reproductive bodies of microbes and the deteriorative enzymes.

Abattoir : An establishment where animals are butchered is known as abattoir. It is also known as slaughterhouse. 
Abiotic : Abiotic means any factor which is not biological / abiological and especially there is no involvement of the organisms in synthesis of certain compounds.

3a. Sources and problems of agricultural wastes
3b. Waste Reduction
3c. Waste Treatment
3d. Waste Disposal
3e. Clean Technology

Different Kinds of Agricultural Wastes
Table 1: Common Hazardous Wastes: Community Source

Nucleic acids like proteins occur in all living cells. They device their name because of their primary occurrence in the nucleus and acidic nature. Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA), one of the two nucleic acids is a major component of chromosomes. Small amounts of DNA are also found associated with chloroplasts and mitochondria.

Franz Holfmeister’s (LT, 1850-1922) definition, “vitamins are substances which are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the animal organism, which occur both in animal and plants and are present in only small amounts in food”, still holds good, although it has been interpreted in various ways.

Introduction

Vast proportions of the population of the world are dependent on plants as their principal source of food either directly or indirectly. Recent decades have also seen increased numbers of people turning to alternative medical therapy based upon traditional folk medicine or food as a form of medicine. These alternative therapies emphasise the importance of a ‘good diet’ in maintaining and restoring health. Under these circumstances, vast majority of population may see diet therapy, dietary supplements and non-invasive alternative therapies as a safer, less technological and more natural way of maintaining health and treating and preventing individuals from illness. These alternatives may be seen as empowering the consumer and shifting the locus of control away from the medical establishment. This chapter covers many crucial topics to understand the chemistry and bioactivity of the active compounds of plant origin. It also aims to cover the latest research on the bioactive compounds.

1. Herbs and Spices
       
    1.    International Standards Organization (ISO) defines spices and condiments as: Vegetable products or mixtures thereof, free from extraneous matter, used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods.

    2.    Rosengarten describes a spice as a product which enriches or alters the quality of a thing, for example altering the taste of a food to give it zest or pungency; a piquant or lasting flavouring; or a relish. The term ‘spice’ is thus used to cover the use of spices, herbs and certain aromatic vegetables to impart odour and flavour to foods.

    3.    Herbs may be defined as the dried leaves of aromatic plants used to impart flavour and odour to foods with, sometimes, the addition of colour. The leaves are commonly traded separately from the plant stems and leaf stalks.

1. Algal Biomass

Algae is defined as heterogeneous assemblage of organisms that range in size from tiny cells to giant seaweeds, thus algae mostly are photosynthetic species which include eukaryotes and prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and live in aquatic habitats. They are ubiquitous in nature and are found in variety of environments ranging from soil, sand, marshes, brackish water, sea and fresh water. Most of them are capable of manufacturing their own food.

Microalgal research is offering wide potential in food biotechnology and is gaining more attention because of presence of wide range of bioactive and nutraceutical properties and added health benefits.The increasing population is one of the major growing concerns of today’s world. To meet the nutritional requirement of the rising population, researchers are looking for optional sources for food which are easy to cultivate, cost effective and produce large amount of bioactive compounds useful to prevent major diseases. Chlorella is unicellular green alga that is a potential source of nutrients like carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Especially, omega-3 fatty acid and carotenoids have received considerable interests due to their roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. Lutein and zeaxanthin from Chlorella have been shown to be associated with eye health and function. Beta-carotene is known to reduce the risk of CVDs and certain cancers. Animal studies also demonstrated that Chlorella supplementation reduced the serum cholesterol levels.

Similarly, the blue green microalgae Spirulina, possesses diverse biological activities and nutritional significance. Regular consumption of Spirulina fortified food improves immune system by increasing phagocytic activity of macrophages, stimulating the production of antibodies and cytokines, increase accumulation of NK cells into tissue and activation and mobilization of T and B cells. Spirulina have also shown to perform regulatory role on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism by exhibiting glucose and lipid profile correcting activity in experimental animals and in diabetic patients. They were also found to be active against several enveloped viruses including herpes virus, cytomegalovirus, influenza virus and HIV. They are capable to inhibit carcinogenesis due to antioxidant properties.