eChapters

Objectives

1. To know the methods of essential oil extraction of spices and condiments.
2. To know the various chemicals present in the essential oil of different spices and condiments.

Essential oil: Essential oils are the liquids that are isolated from plants when introduced to solvents. They are liquefied versions of the plants.

Extraction methods of essential oil

1. Steam Distillation
2. Solvent Extraction
   1. CO₂ Extraction
   2. Maceration
   3. Enfleurage
3. Water Distillation
4. Water and Steam Distillation

Objectives

1. To know the various steps involved in the processing of various spices and condiments.
2. To know the grade of some spices and condiments.

Processing: Perform a series of mechanical or chemical operations on (something) in order to change or preserve it.

Processing of some spices and condiments are given below

1. Black pepper

Processing involves the following steps:

1. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time.
2. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days.
3. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce.

Objectives

1. To study the maturity indices of various spices and condiments.
2. To study the harvesting time and yield of various spices and condiments.

Maturity: A stage of attainment of final state of biological function beyond which growth and development ceases.

Maturity indices: An indication of appropriate stage of harvesting of the produce.

Harvesting: It is deliberate action to separate the plant product from its source of attachment.

Why harvesting at right stage for spices and condiments?

1. To avoid loss of flavour and volatile oils
2. Reduction in yield due to shattering
3. To get the higher yield
4. Recovery of more essential oil
5. Chances of attack of mycotoxigenic and storage pest

Objectives

1. To study the objectives and principles of training and pruning.
2. To study the methods of training and pruning.

Training: It refers to judicious removal of part to develop a proper shape of plant capable of bearing heavy crop load.

Objectives of Training

1. To admit more light and air to the centre of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface to the sun
2. To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying, ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.
3. To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage.
4. To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.

Objectives

1. To study the weeds and its control.
2. To study the herbicides, their types, timing and methods of application.

Weed: A wild plant growing where it is not wanted and in competition with cultivated plants.

Or

Weed is such undesirable plant grown in association with crop which snatches major parts of nutrients, water, light, place and CO₂ available to the crop.

Due to tough competition crop suffers adversely and the production is reduced.

Objective

1. To know the different types of fertilizer application methods applied in spices and condiments.

Methods of fertilizer application: The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types

1. Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

Objective

To know about the production practices used in spices and condiments.

1. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil.

Benefits of Mulching

1. Conservation of soil moisture
2. Improving fertility and health of the soil
3. Reducing weed growth
4. Enhancing the visual appeal of the area

Types of Mulching

1. Organic mulching: Organic mulches include bark nuggets, grass clippings, straw or salt marsh hay, compost and chopped leaves.
2. Inorganic mulching: Inorganic mulches include gravel, polythene and landscape fabric

Objectives

1. To know the layout methods.
2. To know the planting techniques of various spices and condiments.

Layout: Systematic arrangements of plants

Some spices and condiments just like clove, cardamom is perennial in nature. Being perennial in nature any mistake committed during initial year, on the part of planning, is hard to rectify. Hence, all the factors having bearing on growth, production and overall performance of the plant should be given top priority.

Systems of planting

1. Square system: In this system row to row distance and plant to plant distance is kept similar.

Objectives

1. To know about the seed treatment of spices and condiments.
2. To know the sowing method and time of spices and condiments.

Seed treatments or seed dressing: Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide, or a combination of both, to seeds so as to disinfect and disinfect them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in conditioned water, etc. The seed treatment is done to achieve the following benefits.

Advantages of seed treatment

1. Protects germinating seeds and seedlings against soil and seed borne pathogens/insects.
2. Seed germination enhancement.
3. Early and uniform establishment and growth
4. Enhances nodulation in legume crop.
5. Better than soil and foliar application.
6. Uniform crop stand, even in adverse conditions (less/high moisture)

Objectives

1. To know the propagation and its methods.
2. To know the propagation methods of various spices and condiments.

Propagation of plants

The process of increasing plant numbers is called propagation

Or

Multiplication of plants is known as propagation

Plants are propagated either by

1. Sexual (Seed) or
2. Asexual (vegetative) methods.

Objective

1. To know the morphology of different spices and condiments.

Materials: The crop of spices and condiments available at Horticulture research farm

Method of observation: Identification of various spices and condiments plants by carefully observing the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seeds of the plants.

General

1. Habitat: A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of plant. The term typically refers to the zone in which the plant lives and where it can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction It is the natural home of a plant. Each habitat has its own particular type of climate like:
   1. Tropical Spices: These are grown at 1800 m - 3500 m height from ground level eg. clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, konkam, galangal, small cardamom, vanilla, black pepper, ginger, turmeric.
   2. Subtropical Spices: These are grown at 300 m - 900 m height from ground level eg. cumin, dill, fennel, coriander, fenugreek, onion, garlic
   3. Temperate Spices: These are grown at 900 m - 1800 m height from ground level eg. saffron, asafetida, caraway seed, celery seed, savoy, caper, balm, origanum, calamus, thyme etc.

Objective

To study the salient features of important varieties of spices and condiments.

1. Cardamom

Table 3.1: Released/Recommended Cardamom Selections- Estimated Yield and Source of Variability.

2. Black pepper

Table 3.2: Improved varieties of black pepper and their character

Objectives

1. To know the botanical and other names of spices and condiments.
2. To identify the family, plant habit and plant part used of spices and condiments.

Objective

1. To classify the various spices and condiments.

Types of classification: spices and condiments are classified on the following basis:

1. Classification on the basis of economic importance
2. Classification on the basis of parts used
3. Classification on the basis of climatic requirements
4. Classification on the basis of life cycle
5. Classification on the basis of taxonomy
6. Botanical classification

Essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic oily fragrance liquid extracted from plants, containing easily evapourated chemical compounds at room temperature. Essential oils are extracted from the different plant parts including the flowers, leaves, stem, bark, and roots, and they are extracted from different techniques. The most preferable method of extraction is hydro distillation which is easy to use and cheap. Essential oils are used in every field of life, used in aromatherapy, and act as antifungal, antioxidant, anxiety, pain relievers, and depression.

Anthocyanins are members of the flavonoid group of phytochemicals, a group predominant in teas, honey, wines, fruits, vegetables, nuts, olive oil, cocoa and cereals. The primary players in this group include the anthocyanins (eg, cyanidin, pelargonidin, petunidin), flavonols (quercetin, kaempferol), flavones (luteolin, apigenin), flavanones (myricetin, naringin, hesperetin, naringenin), flavan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin), and although sometimes classified separately, the isoflavones (genistein, daidzein) (Skibola and Smith, 2000).

Phenolic compounds constitute a major class of plant secondary metabolites that are widely distributed in the Plant Kingdom. Plant phenolics are biosynthesized through the shikimate/phenylpropanoid pathway leading to different compound classes. They may occur in their natural sources in free forms, as glycosylated or acylated derivatives, and as oligomeric and polymerized structures, such as hydrolyzable and condensed tannins, phlorotannins or lignins. They may also be found linked to plant matrix components such as cell walls, carbohydrates or proteins. It should be indicated that although the terms “plant phenolics” and “polyphenols” are indistinguishably used by some authors, they are not synonymous.

Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Alkaloids showed quite diverse medicinal properties (Rates, 2001). Many of them possess local anesthetic properties, but their practical use is limited for clinical purposes (Hesse, 2002). Morphine is one of the most known alkaloids isolated from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), which had been used and still is for medical purposes. This alkaloid is a powerful narcotic which is used for the relief of pain, but its usefulness is limited because of its addictive properties.

The following plants have been worked out in the laboratory of Prof. N. Raaman: Cynodon dactylon, Artemisia pallens, Leptadenia reticulata, Clausena dentata, Tylophora indica, Aristolochia bracteolata, A. indica, Cissus quadrangularis, Hypericum mysorense. and Solanum trilobatum. Out of some of the data of these plants have been included in the previous chapters. In this chapter, compound isolation (CD1) from Clausena dentata (worked by Dr. R. Kamaraj) and characterization of the compound are given in detail.

Phytochemicals are the individual chemicals from which the plants are made. Phytochemical is simply a word that means plant chemicals. Plants have the ability to synthesize mixtures of structurally diverse bioactive compounds with multiple and mutually potential therapeutic effects. The plants have the capacity of manufacturing the secondary products. Phytochemicals with antioxidant properties tend to be brightly colored because they contain chromophores, ie, a series of alternating single-bonded and double-bonded carbons. Isoprene is often the building block of such units. The darkest green vegetables contain the most chlorophyll, and vegetables with the most chlorophyll require the most antioxidants.

After isolation and purification of the compound, it has to be identified. It is necessary to find out the class of the compound first and then to find out the specific compound within the class. The class of compound is usually determined from the colour tests, solubility, Rf properties and UV spectral characteristics of the compound. Further identification within the class depends on measuring physical properties and spectral measurements and then comparing these data with those in the literature.

For qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemicals, chromatography can be used. Gas chromatography is a powerful means of performing qualitative and quantitative measurements of complex mixtures of volatile substances, which are vaporizable without decomposition.Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) system is a widely used instrument for qualitative and quantitative analysis of solid, liquid, and gaseous samples. Samples are converted into gaseous ions and then separated on the basis of their mass-tocharge ratio. 

All separation procedures depend mainly on some physical characteristics of the compounds. It is relatively easy to separate compounds that have significantly different physical characteristics by simple techniques such as solvent extraction. If the various compounds are similar to each other in their molecular size, any slight difference in any one of their physical properties is exploited to achieve separation. 

The different qualitative chemical tests can be performed for establishing profile of given extract for its chemical composition. The following tests may be performed on extracts to detect various phytoconstituents present in them.

Extraction is a process whereby the desired constituents of a plant are removed using a solvent. The primary ways for extraction of organic molecules of interest to biologists and medical investigators involve breaking open the cells. Cell rupturing is carried out in a variety of ways. The method used depends on the type of tissue used. For plant cells grown in cell suspension culture or for plant callus tissue, a French press or a sonicator can be used to break open the cell.

Phytochemicals from various parts of a plant or tree such as the leaves, the flowers, the seeds, the barks, the roots and the shrubs can be isolated. Once one comes in from collecting plants in the field, it is good idea to freeze them immediately in a freezer at – 20°C or a commercial freezer held at – 80°C (Kaufman et al., 1999). According to Harborne (1984, 1998), fresh plant tissues should be used for phytochemical analysis and the material should be plunged into boiling alcohol within minutes of its collection. Alternatively, plants may be dried before extraction.

Dietary supplements from plant sources are sometimes referred to as phytopharmaceuticals. They are produced from fresh, dried or otherwise preserved plants or parts of plants. The active ingredients are usually not completely isolated but rather are obtained along with other naturally occurring components of the plant. These other components are often believed to influence the efficacy of the active ingredient. Sometimes the active ingredients are concentrated, and undesirable substances such as chlorophyll, tannins, or resins, are removed.

Plants are used as medicine since time immemorial. One of the area of Ethnobotany, Ethnopharmacology is considered as the scientific evaluation of traditional medicinal plants (Cotton, 1996). Cox (1994) has suggested that the ethno-directed sampling is most likely to succeed in identifying drugs used in the treatment of gastrointestinal, inflammatory and dermatological complaints. The Plant kingdom is a virtual goldmine of potential drug targets and other active molecules awaiting to be discovered. It has been estimated that only 10 - 15 per cent of the 7,50,000 existing species of higher plants have been surveyed for biologically active compounds.

About 25% of worldís total food production is lost due to insects, bacteria and rodents after harvesting.

Indiaís exports of Processed Food was Rs. 31563.43 Crores in 2014-15, which includes products like Mango pulp (Rs. 841.39 Crores), Dried and Preserved vegetable (Rs. 847.11 Crores), Other Processed Fruit and Vegetable (Rs. 2,569.93 Crores), Pulses (Rs. 1,209.51 Crores), Groundnuts (Rs. 4,675.35 Crores), Guargum (Rs. 9,480.00 Crores), Jaggery and Confectionary (Rs. 1,161.81 Crores), Cocoa Products (Rs. 848.62 Crores), Cereal preparations (Rs. 3,038.79 Crores), Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic beverages (Rs. 2,231.58 Crores) and Miscellaneous preparations (Rs. 2,437.77 Crores).

Medicinal plants are non-food non-plantation crops.

These are rich in secondary metabolites viz. alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoides and steroids, etc.

Union government of India has started a project on 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library' under which it is documenting all Ayurvedic formulations in a digital form to avert patent threats from companies in the developed world

Spices: It is defined as vegetable products (non-leafy parts) or mixture thereof, used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in food. It may be whole form or in ground form e.g. Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Cinnamon, etc.

These crops are cultivated in an extensive scale in large contiguous areas, owned and managed by an individual or a company and whose produce is utilized only after processing e.g. Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Coconut, Cocoa, etc.

USA ranks 17th in per capita cut flowers consumption.

India ranks 2nd in flower cultivation next to China.

India stands 14th in the world in exporting floricultural products, while the Netherlands and Columbia rank 1st and 2nd, respectively

Olericulture is Latin term ‘Olerus’ meaning ‘pot herb’ and ‘Cultra’ meaning ‘cultivation’.

Definition: Vegetables are those plants wherein parts such as leaf, stem or root can be used for food.

Herbs: Are those plants that are used for food, medicine, scent or flavour.

GENERAL POMOLOGY

Word pomology: Derived from Greek word ëpomeí means ëdevelopment of fruit from inferior ovaryí and ëlogosí means ëto studyí.

Father of systematic pomology: De Candolle.

T. A. Knight attempted 1st artificial hybridization in fruit crops

Definition of farmer (National Policy for Farmers, 2001): A person actively engaged in the economic and/or livelihood activity of growing crops and producing other primary agricultural commodities and will include all agriculture operational holders, cultivators, agriculture labourers, share croppers, tenants, poultry and livestock rearers, fishers, beekeepers, gardeners, pastoralists, non-corporate planters and planting labours, as well as persons engaged in various farming related occupations such as sericulture, vermiculture, and agroforestry. It also includes tribal families/ persons engaged in shifting cultivation and in the collection, use and sale of minor and non-timber forest produce.

Powdery mildew

Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae (Sphaerotheca pannosa)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• A white, powdery fungal growth on the upper, lower or both leaves and shoots.

Botrytis Gray Mould

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Appearance of a gray, fuzzy mold on flowers, leaves or stems of or plants. Also called, “gray mold”.

Stem gall

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptom appears in the form of tumor-like swellings of leaf veins, leaf stalks, peduncles, stems as well as fruits.

• Infected veins show a swollen hanging appearance to the leaves.

Leaf spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves .

Anthracnose or Fruit Rot and Die Back

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

Dieback symptoms

• Small, circular to irregular, brownish black scattered spots appear on leaves .

Purple blotch

Alternaria porri

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease symptoms occurs on leaf and flower stalks.

Downy mildew

Pseudoperonospora cubensis

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Yellow, angular spots restricted by veins resembling mosaic mottling appear on upper surface of leaves .

Late Blight

Phytophthora infestans

• Phytophthora in Greek means “plant destroyer”(phyto=plant, phthora= destroyer).

Leaf Spot

(Mycosphaerella fragariae teleomorph, Ramularia brunnea Peck anamorph)?

Disease Symptoms

• Older leaves usually show purple spots (3-6 mm in diameter) on the upper surface, sometimes with a slightly darker halo

Leaf Curl

Taphrina deformans

Disease Symptoms

• Initially yellowish to reddish areas appear on leaf blade of young leaves in the spring.

Scab

Ventruia inaequalis (Spilocaea pomi Fr?)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptoms generally noticed on leaves and fruits.

Downy Mildew

Plasmopara viticola

• Downy mildew of grapes was catastrophic in France in 1878.

Gummosis

Phytophthora spp

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Dark water soaked large patches appear on the basal portions of the stem near the ground level.

Anthracnose

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease produces symptoms like leaf spot, blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot

• Symptoms on leaves show as gray to brown spots with dark margins and a yellow halo. The spots later enlarge and coaleasce to form sizable necrotic areas.