eChapters

These crops are cultivated in an extensive scale in large contiguous areas, owned and managed by an individual or a company and whose produce is utilized only after processing e.g. Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Coconut, Cocoa, etc.

USA ranks 17th in per capita cut flowers consumption.

India ranks 2nd in flower cultivation next to China.

India stands 14th in the world in exporting floricultural products, while the Netherlands and Columbia rank 1st and 2nd, respectively

Olericulture is Latin term ‘Olerus’ meaning ‘pot herb’ and ‘Cultra’ meaning ‘cultivation’.

Definition: Vegetables are those plants wherein parts such as leaf, stem or root can be used for food.

Herbs: Are those plants that are used for food, medicine, scent or flavour.

GENERAL POMOLOGY

Word pomology: Derived from Greek word ëpomeí means ëdevelopment of fruit from inferior ovaryí and ëlogosí means ëto studyí.

Father of systematic pomology: De Candolle.

T. A. Knight attempted 1st artificial hybridization in fruit crops

Definition of farmer (National Policy for Farmers, 2001): A person actively engaged in the economic and/or livelihood activity of growing crops and producing other primary agricultural commodities and will include all agriculture operational holders, cultivators, agriculture labourers, share croppers, tenants, poultry and livestock rearers, fishers, beekeepers, gardeners, pastoralists, non-corporate planters and planting labours, as well as persons engaged in various farming related occupations such as sericulture, vermiculture, and agroforestry. It also includes tribal families/ persons engaged in shifting cultivation and in the collection, use and sale of minor and non-timber forest produce.

Powdery mildew

Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae (Sphaerotheca pannosa)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• A white, powdery fungal growth on the upper, lower or both leaves and shoots.

Botrytis Gray Mould

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Appearance of a gray, fuzzy mold on flowers, leaves or stems of or plants. Also called, “gray mold”.

Stem gall

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptom appears in the form of tumor-like swellings of leaf veins, leaf stalks, peduncles, stems as well as fruits.

• Infected veins show a swollen hanging appearance to the leaves.

Leaf spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves .

Anthracnose or Fruit Rot and Die Back

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

Dieback symptoms

• Small, circular to irregular, brownish black scattered spots appear on leaves .

Purple blotch

Alternaria porri

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease symptoms occurs on leaf and flower stalks.

Downy mildew

Pseudoperonospora cubensis

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Yellow, angular spots restricted by veins resembling mosaic mottling appear on upper surface of leaves .

Late Blight

Phytophthora infestans

• Phytophthora in Greek means “plant destroyer”(phyto=plant, phthora= destroyer).

Leaf Spot

(Mycosphaerella fragariae teleomorph, Ramularia brunnea Peck anamorph)?

Disease Symptoms

• Older leaves usually show purple spots (3-6 mm in diameter) on the upper surface, sometimes with a slightly darker halo

Leaf Curl

Taphrina deformans

Disease Symptoms

• Initially yellowish to reddish areas appear on leaf blade of young leaves in the spring.

Scab

Ventruia inaequalis (Spilocaea pomi Fr?)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptoms generally noticed on leaves and fruits.

Downy Mildew

Plasmopara viticola

• Downy mildew of grapes was catastrophic in France in 1878.

Gummosis

Phytophthora spp

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Dark water soaked large patches appear on the basal portions of the stem near the ground level.

Anthracnose

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease produces symptoms like leaf spot, blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot

• Symptoms on leaves show as gray to brown spots with dark margins and a yellow halo. The spots later enlarge and coaleasce to form sizable necrotic areas.

Powdery Mildew

Erysiphe polygoni

Diagnostic Symptoms

• At first symptom appears on leaves.

• White floury patches appear on both surface of leaves as well as tendrils, stem and pod.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease affects the crop at all stages.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptoms can occur at both the seedling and plant developmental stages and appear as patches in the field

• It usually occurs near or at the reproductive stages (flowering to podfilling) of crop growth

Diagnostic Symptoms

• At first pale-green chlorosis, typically appear on lower leaves and extending up the plant.Leaves eventually take on a dull-yellow colour, wilt and the plant collapses and dies.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Intially chlorotic (yellowed) lesions and sometimes galls appeared on the upper leaf surface.

• There are corresponding white blister-like dispersal pustules of sporangia on the underside of the leaf.

Diagnostic Symptom

• Circular to oval, dark brown to black spots appear on the leaves.The spots enlarge into round to irregular spots with concentric rings and coalesce causing blighting and withering of leaves.

• These are surrounded by chlorotic zone with grey white necrotic center.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Practically all above ground parts are affected, but stalks are the main targets of stack.

• Spindle leaves (third or fourth) starts drying.

• Further stalks becomes discolored and hollow.

Rust

The rust of wheat has been studied more than any other disease in the world. In India, K.C Mehta and his associates studied this disease with exemplary zeal. Three rusts of wheat are known. These are Black stem rust, caused by Puccinia graminis tritici, Brown rust (leaf rust), caused by Puccinia recondita, and Yellow rust, caused by P? striiformis. Brown and yellow rusts cause more damage thant the black rust, because of early appearance in the season.

24.1 Introduction

In India, the commercial cultivation of oil palm started during 1970. Today about 16 countries of tropics cultivate oil palm. The palm oil has been safe and nutritious source of edible oil for human consumption for 1000 years. Palm oil and its liquid fraction palmolein is consumed worldwide as cooking oil. Malaysia, Indonesia, Nigeria and Columbia started to grow oil palm in a large scale during 1980. The commercial producing countries are Liberia, Peru, Angola, Senegal, Ghana, etc.

23.1 Introduction

Coffee is the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating and refreshing beverage. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

22.1 Introduction

Tea is the most important non-alcoholic beverage gaining further popularity as an important “health drink”. It is consumed as a morning drink by 2/3rd of world population. Tea was initially used as a medicine and subsequently as beverage and now has proven to be a potential raw material for pharmaceutical industry. Tea is mainly consumed in the form of ‘fermented tea’ or ‘black tea’, ‘non-fermented tea’ or ‘green tea’ and ‘semi-fermented tea’ or ‘oolong tea’. Green leaves are also used as vegetables such as ‘leppet tea’ in Burma and ‘meing tea’ in Thailand. Tea leaves have more than 700 chemical constituents among which flavonoids, amino acids, vitamins (C, E, K), caffeine and polysaccharides are important to human health. The stimulating effect of tea is due to caffeine (1.25-4.5%). Per cup value of caffeine in tea is three and half times less than that of coffee and is less harmful than coffee. Importantly, the vitamin C content in leaves is comparable to that of lemon.

21.1 Introduction

Cashewnut or cashew is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. It is often referred to as ‘wonder nut’. It is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazelnut and walnut. The economic part is kernel which is a unique combination of fats (47%), protein (21%), carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. Nutritionally it is equivalent to milk, egg and meat, it is good appetizer, an excellent nerve tonic, stimulant, body builder. India is the largest producer, processor and exporter; and second largest consumer in the world. Cashew is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra along the west coast and in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal along the east coast.

20.1 Introduction

Arecanut (or betel palm) is chewed as narcotic either alone or more commonly along with betel leaf. Its nut has medicinal and pharmaceutical properties. About 1/10th of world population has a habit of betel chewing. Nut contains polyphenol (11-18 %) which includes flavonols like catechin, epicatechin, leucocyanidin, fat (9-15%), polysaccharides (17-25%), fibre and protein (6- 7.5%) and some minerals like calcium, phosphorous and iron.

19.1 Introduction

Coconut is valued most for its nut. The other components are coconut water, kernel, shell and husk. Coconut water is one of the most refreshing drinks. It is also known for its medicinal value. It increases blood circulation in kidneys, causes profuse diuresis and eliminates mineral poisoning. It is a good substitute for saline glucose under gastroenteritis conditions. The coconut has been regarded as ‘Kalpavriksha’ because all the parts of the palm is useful to mankind in one way or other. The dried kernels commonly called as copra is the richest source of vegetable fat (60-67 % oil). Coconut is major source of edible oil. India is the largest producer of coir and its product. The major coconut growing areas of the world are found in Asia, Oceania, West Indies, Central South America, East and West Africa. In India, coconut is commercially grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Odisha and West Bengal.

18.1 Introduction

Among nut crops, ‘Walnut’ or ‘Akhrot’ is the most important crop. It has immense commercial importance even in the areas situated in remotes without having good market and transport infrastructure. Because of long storability, growers have opportunity to hold the produce at room temperature for two to three months easily and sell out at intended time. Walnut is rich in protein, fats and vitamins, especially vitamin B6 . The walnut kernel contains about 90% PUFA of which 26% is the Omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid. But the problem with this type of kernel is that higher the percentage of PUFA in it, the more is the chances of getting the oil oxidized and thereby reducing the shelf life of the walnut kernel.

17.1 Introduction

Almond or badam is a high energy nut. Almond kernels contain lipids (52.2%), protein (20%), carbohydrate (20.4%) and water-soluble sugars (4.4%). Irrigation affects almond yield and quality. Almond quality is primarily genotype dependent. Maturity at harvest can also influence kernel quality.

16.1 Introduction

Peach is one of the important fruits grown in warm temperate zones of the world. Fruits are rich in protein, sugar, minerals and vitamins. Peaches are highly valued as table fruit for their attractive colour and palatability. Canned peaches, dried frozen preserves, jams, nectar are principal processed products of peach. It is grown mainly in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Nilgiri hills, Jharkhand and North-Eastern States.

15.1 Introduction

Pear is one of the important fruit crops that belong to the family Rosaceae. In the world pear is cultivated in China, USA, Argentina, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, South Africa, Japan, Belgium etc. It is grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes ranging from cold dry temperate hilly conditions to warm humid sub-tropical conditions on the plains of northern India. In India pear is widely cultivated in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand etc.

14.1 Introduction

Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as King of temperate fruits. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, potassium, vitamin B6 . Apple is rich in antioxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. It is recommended to reduce the incidence of dental caries. The phytonutrients and antioxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancers, hypertensions, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruit, e.g., juice, jelly, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice, cider and powder. It is widely cultivated in Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Japan, Jordan etc.

13.1 Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), an economically important fruit plant species, belongs to the family Punicaceae. It is an important fruit crop of arid and semiarid regions of the world and has been believed to be the symbol of fertility and abundance. Pomegranate is a highly remunerative crop for replacing subsistence farming and alleviating poverty. The plant is drought tolerant, winter hardy and can thrive well under desert condition. It is a good source of protein, carbohydrate, minerals, antioxidants, vitamins A, B and C, and has also been used in controlling diarrhoea, hyperacidity, tuberculosis, leprosy, abdominal pain and fever. Pomegranate juice contains antioxidants such as soluble polyphenols, tannins, anthocyanins and can be used in the treatment of cancer and chronic inflammation. It has enjoyed a reputation for its healthy dietetic and medicinal properties.

12.1 Introduction

Aonla (also called Amla, Indian gooseberry) is a tropical and sub-tropical fruit. It is mainly recognized due to its high nutritive, medicinal and therapeutic properties. It contains high amount of vitamin C (500-1500 mg/100 g); it is also rich in pectin, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Dried fruits of aonla are used in curing haemorrhage, diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, dyspepsia, cough etc. Aonla is the main ingredient of Chavanprash and Triphala powder. The fruit contains gallic acid and leucoanthocyanin which have antioxidant property. Its cultivation is more common and widely grown in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

11.1 Introduction

Ber (also called Indian Jujube, Indian Plum, Chinese Apple and Masau) is an important minor fruit of India. It is most widely cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra etc. Fruits are mostly eaten fresh but other forms, such as dried, candied, squash etc. can be prepared from ber. Stem, bark, root and leaves have some medicinal values. Leaves of ber are used as fodder in dry regions.

10.1 Introduction

Litchi is a delicious fruit and generally consumed as a table fruit. It is one of the most popular fruits in India. It is also recognized as “Queen of Fruits”. It is a subtropical evergreen fruit crop. Its climatic requirements are highly specific. Thus, its commercial cultivation is restricted to only a few subtropical countries of the world. The major litchi producing countries are China, India, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. In India, the important litchi growing states are Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Litchi makes an excellent canned fruit and highly flavoured squash is prepared from inferior fruits.

9.1 Introduction

Pineapple is one of the most important commercial fruits of the world. It is good source of vitamin A, B and fairly rich in vitamin C, minerals like calcium, phosphorous and iron. Fresh fruit is used as dessert. Fruit is also used for juice, squash, jam, mixed jam and in canned form. Fruit core is used for preparing candy. Some cultivars of pineapple are used for extraction of fibre. The important pineapple growing states are Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

8.1 Introduction

Guava is the fourth important fruit crop next to mango, banana and citrus. It is known as the ‘Apple of tropics’. It is very rich and cheap source of Vitamin C and also contains a fair amount of calcium. Important guava growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh has the reputation of growing the best quality of guava fruits in the world. The importance of guava is due to the fact that it is the hardy fruit which can be grown in alkaline and poorly drained soil. Guava fruits are used for making jam, jelly and various culinary purposes. The fruit can be canned in sugar syrup.

7.1 Introduction

Papaya is a fruit crop grown in kitchen garden, backyards of home and orchards. It is grown as a filler crop in orchard. India is the largest producer of papaya in the world. It is also cultivated in Brazil, Mexico, Australia, Hawaii, Malaysia, Taiwan, Peru, Florida, Gold Coast, South Africa and Bangladesh. In India, it is widely cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh. The ripe fruits of papaya are consumed throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. Fruits are also used in the preparation of jam, soft drinks, ice cream flavour, crystallized fruits and syrups. Unripe fruits are commonly used as vegetables. Papain is prepared from the latex of immature fruits. It is a proteolytic enzyme used for tendering of meat, preparation of chewing gum and cosmetics. The ripe fresh fruit is rich source of vitamin A, carbohydrates and minerals. The fruits are prescribed for piles, dyspepsia, liver, spleen and digestive disorders. Roots are used as nerve tonic. The plants flower five months after planting and fruits are ready five months after flowering. So, it has attracted attention of fruit growers to cultivate on a large scale in the country.

6.1 Introduction

Grapes are being grown commercially in the tropics. The region between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn which was once considered to be unsuitable for growing quality grapes is producing good quality grapes. Tropical countries where grapes are grown are India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, South China, Australia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela, West Indies, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe. In India, about 90% of grapes are being produced in the tropical states including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There are three main commercial uses of grape, viz., table, raisin and wine.

5.1 Introduction

Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops in the world. It is grown in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. The top ten citrus producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, Brazil, Mexico, USA, Spain, Egypt, Italy and Argentina. The citrus industry in India is the third fruit industry after mango and banana. The important groups of crops in citrus are sweet orange, mandarins, limes, lemons, grape fruits and pummelo. The most important commercial Citrus species grown in India are mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco.), followed by sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) and acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle). The major citrus producing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

4.1 Introduction

Banana (Musa spp.) is one of the oldest fruits and second largest growing fruit crop in the world. It is also known as Adam’s Fig and Apple of Paradise. Important banana growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. In South India, banana is extensively used in all auspicious occasions such as wedding, festival and worship. Banana is a good table fruit. The cultivar Nendran is used for cooking; it is also used for preparation of halwa, sweet, chips etc. Main bud or heart of banana bunches is also used as vegetable in India, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Musa textiles is known for strong fibre quality. Ripe banana contains about 20% sugar (but no starch) and about 4.7% protein. Further, it contains vitamins A, B, C, D and E and minerals such as K, P, Ca and Fe.

3.1 Introduction

The Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belonging to the family Anacardiaceae in order Sapindales, is amongst the most important tropical fruits of the world. In India, it is also known as the ‘king of fruits’ owing to the delicious quality of the fruit rich in vitamins and minerals. Its long period of domestication is evident from its mention in the ancient Indian scriptures. In India, mango has been valued not only for religious consideration but also for its importance in the economic and cultural life of the society. Mango is rich in Vitamin A and C, flavonoids, carotenes, glucosides, sterols, terpenes, aromatic acids, essential oils, fatty acids and phenolics. It is a powerful nutritive fruit, containing most of the essential substances needed by the human body. The most important single factor limiting the production of mango fruit at the present time is the erratic fruiting habits of this species. Some cultivars produce a good crop in most years and a poor crop in other years, while still other cultivars produce only a few fruits each year. For many years new cultivars have been selected and grown on the basis of size, appearance, and dessert quality with very little attention given to their production capabilities. The improvement of mango needs to explore new recombinants primarily by means of exploiting the breeding methodologies. Diversity or heterogeneity is the main character desired for breeding either natural or manmade. It is required to have vast genetic pool to get new combinations of desired nature and developing new hybrids. It has been mentioned earlier that the development of mango in India is the result of selection from the amateur gardeners. Now, the scientists have developed certain hybrids of mango.

2.1 Introduction

The different breeding strategies (methods) that can be employed for improvement of fruit crops include introduction, open pollinated selection, clonal selection, hybrid breeding, polyploidy breeding, mutation breeding, molecular breeding, in vitro breeding and transgenic breeding. Combining traditional approaches with biotechnological approaches will speed up the rate of genetic improvement. Thus, what is required is to adopt a coordinated approach involving breeders, biotechnologists, horticulturists, pathologists, entomologists and statistician for making the cultivation of fruit crops more scientific and more profitable and thereby contributing more to improving the health of the people in a sustainable manner.