eChapters

1) Phomopsis fruit rot or Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Plants are attacked at all stages of growth.
• On leaves, circular to irregular, clearly defined grayish brown spots having light centers appear. The diseased leaves become yellowish in colour and may drop off.
• Several black pycnidiacan be seen on older spots.
• Lesions on stem are dark brown, round to oval and have grayish centers where pycnidia develop.
• At the base of the stem, the fungus causes characteristic constrictions leading to canker development and toppling of plants.
• On fruits, small pale sunken spots appear which on enlargement cover entire fruit surface. These spots become watery leading to soft rot phase of the disease. A large number of dot like pycnidia also develop on such spots.
• Infection of fruit through calyx leads to development of dry rot and fruits appear black and mummified (Fig.1).

Shoot and fruit borer: Leucinodes orbonalis: Pyraustidae

The pest is active throughout year, but more during monsoon period. Heavy losses up to 60% can occur.

The adult is a greyish brown medium sized moth with white and hyaline wings, having triangular brown and red markings on forewing. A crescent shaped mark facing outside at the apical margin is typical for the species. About 150-250 creamy white eggs are laid singly on leaves, tender shoots, flowers and developing fruits. Egg period is 3-5 days and the hatched larva completes its life in 15 days with 5 instars.

Bronchitis may be defined as a distressing and often serious type of inflammation affecting the windpipe, or bronchial tubes, in the chest. There are two types of bronchitis:

1. Acute Bronchitis
2. Chronic Bronchitis

Acute bronchitis: In acute bronchitis the larynx, trachea and bronchial tubes are acutely inflamed. The tissues are swollen because of irritation; large amount of mucus is secreted and poured into the bronchial tubes to protect the inflamed mucous membrane. Unless this thick, sticky material is removed, it may obstruct the windpipe, causing more severe diseases like atelactasis and pneumonia. The common cold is probably the most frequent cause of acute bronchitis.

During the acute stage of bronchitis there is usually a high fever and some difficulty in breathing. There is a constant cough. Hoarseness may also be present and some pain in the chest. Difficulty in breathing continues until the inflammation has decreased. And thick secretions have removed. Chilliness is present with internal coldness, also cold hands and feet, rawness beneath the sternum, some tightness and oppression of the chest, cough may be dry, hard, ringing, expulsive, paroxysmal, tearing which leaves great soreness under the sternum. After few days the cough, which was at first dry, becomes moist and is accompanied by slight expectoration of mucus and occasionally some blood. As the amount of expectoration increases all the other symptoms decreases, and then in turn abnormal secretion and expectoration also decreases at the end of 7 to 10 days.

1. TERMS RELATED WITH BROWNING

The word BRYONIA means growing rapidly, as the stem grows rapidly.

ALBA, from Latin word ALBUS means white as the roots and flowers are yellowish or white.

Bryonia affects especially the constitution of a robust, firm fiber and dark complexion, with tendency to leanness and irritability. It prefers the right side, the evening, and open air. Warm weather after cold days, to manifest its action most markedly. Bryonia acts on all serous membranes and the viscera they contain.

Bryonia gives remarkable relief in muscular pain, which aggravates on motion, in the treatment of bronchitis and inflammatory and congestive headache.

The character of the pain is "Stitching and tearing". An interesting feature of Bryonia pain is that patient feels better, ameliorated if pressure is applied to the painful part. The patient is comfortable when lying on the painful side.

9.1. Onion (Allium cepa L.)

The onion (Allium cepa), which is also known as the bulb onion, or common onion is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It has been used as food since time immemorial and is an important vegetable all over the world. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense). The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the “common onion group” (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as “onions”. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions. Onion is suggested to have been originated in Asia, particularly Pakistan and Iran.

China is the largest onion producer in the world followed by India. Largest area under onion is in India followed by China. The major onion producing state are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Cultivars/Varieites: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency and maturation. The most popular varieties under cultivation are Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Agrifound Red, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan, Arka Pragati, Baswant 780, Brown Spanish, Co-1, Co-2 Co- 3, Co-4, Early Grano, Hisar II, Kalyanpur Red Round, MDU 1 N-2-4-1, N-53, N-257-9-1, Punjab 48 (S 48), Pusa Madhavi, Punjab Red Round, Punjab Selection, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Udaipur 101, 102 & 103.

ABSTRACT

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch., (Family: Apiaceae) is an important plant of temperate regions and its seeds are used as carminative substance in various food recipes. The seeds of the species act as a good source of economy to the hilly and mountain people. As the species is restricted in its habitat, therefore, it requires mass cultivation practices. Many attempts are already made to cultivate species near to its natural habitat. In recent years some efforts have been done to domesticate this plant in certain areas of India like Shong area in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India, but the cultivation remained very limited. Therefore, in addition to its collection from the wild sources the species needs more scientific intervention in agriculture sector. This species has typical Palaeo-Mediterranean distribution. In India the species is distributed in wild only in North West Himalaya (J&K, HP and UK) which makes its ocurrence rarity in the country. The species restricted its distribution between 1850-3100 meters above mean sea level. Phylogenetically the species is near to Carum carvi L., therefore, C. carvi is the potential adulterant of B. persicum.

Cacao Mealy Bug : Planococcus lilacinus : Pseudococcidae

The adult female mealy bug is 3.9 mm in length and 2.25 mm in width. Eggs are laid on the plant parts within a mass of tangled waxy strands, a female laying 50 to 300 eggs. The eggs hatch in less than 6 hours and the nymphs feeding on the plant juice become full-grown in 20-25 days with a mean of 23 days in the case of females and 17 to 20 days for the males. The male nymph assumes a pupal period which lasts for 4 to 6 days and the adult male is winged. They live for 2-3 days while the adult female has longevity of 12 -16 days. The females dominate the population, 67.6 per cent of the crawlers developing into female mealy bugs.

The name CACTUS was originally given by Theophrastus, to a spiny plant of Sicily in Italy.

Act on circular muscular fibres, hence constrictions. It is the heart and arteries especially that at once respond to the influence of Cactus, producing very characteristic constrictions as of an iron band. This sensation is found in various places, oesophagus, bladder, etc. The mental symptoms produced correspond to those found when there are heart affections, sadness and melancholy. Haemorrhage, constrictions, periodicity, and spasmodic pains. Whole body feels as if caged, each wire being twisted tighter. Atheromatous arteries and weak heart. Congestion; irregular distribution of blood. Favors formation of clots speedily. Great periodicity. Toxic goiter with cardiac symptoms. Cactus is pulseless, painting and prostrated.

We use Cactus for constriction of the heart. It feels as if an iron band were preventing the normal movement of the heart. The pain is worse when the patient is lying on the left side.

Cactus has four leading indications, viz. haemorrhage, constriction, periodicity and spasmodic pain. The whole body feels as if it is caged, with each wire being twisted tighter.

In case of heart problems, there is a fluttering and palpitation of the heart, an irregularity in the action of the heart. The patient suffers from endocarditis, an inflammation of the layer of the epithelial cells which lines the cavities of the heart. There may be mitrial insufficiency with palpitation. There may be swelling of the left hand, of the left leg and foot. The left arm is numb. The circulation of the blood is spasmodic, irregular.

Introduction

Cactus pear belongs to Cactaceae family, is widely grown in Mexico and distributed in arid and semi arid tracts of several other parts of the world, such as Australia, Africa, USA and the Mediterranean basin and South East Asia. The future of arid and semi-arid areas of the World largely depends on the development of sustainable agricultural systems based on the use of appropriate crops. Suitable crops are those that successfully cope with water shortage, high temperature, variabilities, poor soils, and easy management to provide food and forage to poor farmers and herders. Opuntias fit most of the above described requirements. In addition, Opuntias play an important ecological role in combating desertification as well as producing fruits and vegetables for human consumption, forage or fodder for livestock, biomass for energy purposes, cochineal for carmine production, and numerous by-products (beverages, vegetarian cheese, drugs and cosmetics). They also provide shelter and food for various wildlife species in arid environments. The fruit known as tuna is a fleshy berry, varying in shape, size, and colour and has a consistent number of hard seeds. The fairly high sugar content and low acidity of the fruit makes it palatable and delicious. Cactus pear was largely treated as underutilized crop by the scientific world until the beginning of 1980, when there was a multiplication of research and symposia, resulting in a large number of publications, including books and book chapters. Recent research finding has, in fact, revealed the high content of some chemical constituents, which can give added value to this crop on a nutritional and bioactive profile. High levels of betalains, taurine, calcium, magnesium, and antioxidants are nutraceutically important. Moreover, some of the constituents show promising in terms of health beneficial quality. Cactus pear products could supplement to nutritional security and human health. The diverse genotypes of Cactus pear have different coloured fruit that show the presence of different antioxidants profiles.

Description and Distribution
Sweet Flag or Calamus is reported to be common in Kashmir and Kumaon ranges of the Himalayan forests. The rhizomes are collected from the Himalaya forests and brought to Kathgodan, from where they are despatched to Mumbai, Kolkota and Kanuaj. It is a semi-aquatic perennial herb with a creeping and much branched aromatic rhizome. The rhizome is cylindrical or slightly compressed, about 19-25 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long. Externally, it is light brown or pinkish in color, and, white and spongy within. It is thoroughly washed in water, freed from dirt, and rootlets are removed and then carefully dried at a low temperature. It deteriorates with age and is subject to attack by worms. It is this dried rhizome, which constitutes Calamus or Sweet Flag, which is used as a condiment and as a pharmaceutical product . It has a reputation as a healing herb for its use in medicine. It is found wild as a water weed in shallow margins of creeks, lakes, pools and some rivers, throughout India and Sri Lanka, ascending to 1830 meter above mean sea level in the Himalayas. The plant thrives in marshy places and in most situations, like the edges of lakes and banks of streams. It is cultivated in one district , Kotagere, in Karnataka State, India. Curiously enough, the cultivation of Sweet Flag has not been extended to any other part of the State. It is also cultivated in Europe and USA, more for medicinal purposes.
Area, Production And International Trade
No reliable information is available on any of the above aspects in India, except that it is traded both for medicinal and condiment purposes.

This great Hahnemannian antipsoric is a constitutional remedy. Its chief action is on the glands, skin and bones. Increased general and local perspiration, swelling of glands, scrofulous and rachitic conditions generally offer numerous opportunities for the application of Calcarea. A jaded state, mental or physical, due to overwork. Persons of scrofulous type, who take cold easily, with increased mucous secretion, children who grow fat, are large bellied, with large head, pale skin, chalky look, affections caused by working in water. Children crave eggs and eat dirt and other indigestible things; are prone to diarrhoea. Calcarea patient is fat, fair, flabby and perspiring.

In cases of deficient or irregular bone development, deformed extremities, a crooked spine, a softening of the bone, Calcarea Carb comes handy. While the Sulphur patient might be usually thin, lean and wiry, the Calcarea patient might be obese. But like Sulphur, Calcarea carb helps in easy relapses, interrupted convalescence.

ABSTRACT

In the studies on callus induction and somatic embryogenesis in acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia S.) var Sai-Sharbati, different ex-plants and different combinations of growth regulators (NAA, IBA and BA) in MS basal media were tried, the results indicated that cotyledonary segment was the best explant for callus induction among root tip hypocotyl stem, leaf, epicotyl stem and shoot tip explants tested of. The callus grown from epicotyl and hypocotyl stem explant was greenish white and compact. Whereas callus derived from cotylidonary segment and leaf segment was green and friable . Root tip and shoot tip did not exhibit callusing. The callus derived from epicotyl stem and hypocptyl stem explant responded shoot bud formation in MS medium supplemented with NAA 0.2mg/l + BA 0.5mg/l with or without ME 100mg/l. In somatic embryogenesis, full grown callus derived from epicotyl stem explant induced embryo formation within 28.33 days and more shoot bud (6.33) formation.

8.1. Introduction

The term canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health and micro-organisms as well as enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. The canning of fruits and vegetables is canned out in the season when they are available in plenty. The canned products are then sold in the off season for getting better returns and to assure availability of fruits and vegetables throughout the year at reasonable prices.

8.2. History of canning

Important historical developments in canning are as under:

• The credit for invention of canning goes to Nicholas Appert, a French confectioner who was awarded a prize in 1809 by the French government for developing new method of heat preservation of food in sealed container and after whose name the process of canning is known as Appertization.

• In year 1810, Appert published the first book on canning entitled The Art of Preserving Animal and vegetable substances for many years which is the first known work on canning.

• The work of Appert consists of packing food in glass bottles, closing with corks and heating the container in boiling water for several minutes depending upon type of food.

33.1. Aim

To perform canning of fruit and vegetables.

33.2. Theory

Canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health as well as micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Broadly canning is a method of preservation of food for achieving longer shelf-life.

33.3. Principle of canning

Destruction of spoilage causing micro-organisms and enzymes within the sealed containers by means of heat.

Canning: Canning is the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

History: The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning) and Saddington (1807) in England first described the method of canning. Peter Durand (1810) got first british patent on canning of food in tin container and William under wood introduced canning of fruit on a commercial scale in U.S.A.

Principle of canning: The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat.

Canning: Cannings the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning). The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat. The procedure of the canning should be as follows.

Canopy management is central to achieving balanced vegetative growth, efficient light utilization, flowering, fruiting, and high-quality produce. This chapter explains the principles and objectives of training and pruning in horticultural crops. Different training systems are related to crop architecture, growth habit, planting density, and production objectives. Pruning techniques are discussed for regulating shoot growth, removing undesirable branches, improving air circulation, and maintaining productive canopy structure. Light interception and distribution within the canopy are also examined because photosynthetic efficiency strongly influences yield and fruit quality. Modern high-density orchards require precise canopy management to balance productivity, plant size, mechanization, and long-term orchard sustainability.

The low productivity in guava because of traditional planting distance (6-7 m apart) with no canopy management practices. Guava under traditional and high density planting system, though it gives high yield during initial stage but as the tree advances in age light interception and aeration decreases inside the canopy due to shading and overcrowding, resulting low yields and poor quality. In order to develop efficient canopy architecture for HDP and traditional planting system, the ICAR-CISH has standardized training system and canopy management with objective to have sustained high yield and quality of guava.
Guava bears flower on current shoots produced on mature wood laterally or terminally. In general flowers are produced in the leaf axils in 1 or 2-3 in cluster. The crop load depend on number of new shoots, hence more new shoots resulting more fruiting surface area.
High Density Planting System
Accommodation of more plants per unit area is known as high density planting system. Since guava respond well to pruning and fruiting starts 40-50 days after pruning and more new shoots emerged on which more flowers and fruits appears, thus yield increased. For successful HDP suitable canopy shape and its management is prerequisite. Guava is usually planted 6-7 m distance accommodating 277 to 204 plants per hectare the yield vary 35-80 kg/tree with yield per hectare 15-12 t/ha. In traditional planting density usually fruiting takes place on high on the tree.

Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality fruits. The canopy management, particularly its components like tree training and pruning, affects the quantity of sunlight intercepted by trees, as tree shape determines the presentation of leaf area to incoming radiation. An ideal training strategy centres around the arrangement of plant parts, especially, to develop a better plant architecture that optimizes the utilization of sunlight and promotes productivity. Light is critical to growth and development of trees and their fruits. The green leaves harvest the sunlight to produce carbohydrates and sugars which are transported to the sites where they are needed – buds, flowers and fruits. Better light penetration into the tree canopy improves tree growth, productivity, yield and fruit quality. The density and orientation of planting also impact light penetration in an orchard. Generally, in close planting, quicker shading becomes a problem. An east-west row orientation results in more shading as compared to the western and southern orientation of trees. Strong bearing branches tend to produce larger fruits. The problem of a fruit grower is initially to build up a strong and balanced framework of the trees, then equip them with appropriate fruiting. Obviously, pruning in the early years has to be of a training type to provide strong and stocky framework with well spaced limbs or any other desired shape.