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Date-palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.). belongs to family Palmae and is the most common tree of desert and dry areas. Date palm is one of the oldest trees known to man kind. Date-palm is believed to have originated in the countries around Persian Gulf. It is extensively grown in Iraq, Iran, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Mauritiana, Morrocco, Tunisia, Baharin, Sudan, USA, Spain, Australia, Pakistan, South Africa, Somalia, Oman and some parts of the South America. Date is a staple food of the people of the Western Iraq and North Africa. In India, it has been believed to be introduced by soldiers of Alexander the Great in 4^th century B.C. In India it is commercially cultivated in Rajasthan, Punjab, Hariyana and Gujarat.

Cultivars: Deglet Noor, Halawy, Khadhrawi, Hayani, Majhul, Zahidi, Khalaeh.

Uses

Date palms produce many products that are useful to human beings. The primary product is the date fruit, which can be eaten fresh, dried, or in various processed forms. In North Africa and the Middle East, some dates are harvested and consumed during the Khalal stage, when the fruit are still very astringent with a high tannin content (Dowson and Aten, 1962 ; Glasner et al., 2002; Kader,1992). Dates can be used in cereal, pudding, bread, pressed cakes, cookies, candy bars, ice cream, and date shakes (a California specialty). Date fruit also can be made into juice, vinegar, wine, beer, sugar, syrup, honey, chutney, pickle, paste, dip, and food flavoring (Barreveld, 1993; Glasner et al., 2002).

It is said that there are as many uses of dates as there are days in a year. The trunk and wood of date palms can be used as timber, wood, or fuel. Fiber from the trunk and leaves can be made into bags, baskets, camel saddles, cords, crates, fans, food covers, furniture, mats, paper, ropes, trays, and twine. Dried bundles of leaves (‘‘Barusti’’) can be made into shades, roofs, separating walls, and enclosures. Ribs of the leaves can be used to build boats (small fishing boats called ‘‘Shasha’’) or fishing traps. The base of the leaves and fruit stalks can be used for fuel. The pith of the palms can be made into date palm flour. Terminal buds (palm heart) can be eaten as a salad or as a cooked vegetable. Date seeds can be used as feed for livestock or strung as beads for decoration. Oil from date seeds can be manufactured into soap (Chao and Krueger, 2007). Dates are considered a balanced and healthy diet and have several medicinal uses. Leaves are source of fibre used for making ropes baskets and cordage. Walking sticks are made from leafstalk.

Genus Annona belonging to the family Annonaceae, contains more than seventy species of woody shrubs and trees, all of which produce aggregate fleshy fruits. Of these only a few produce edible fruits of commercial importance. Of all, Annona squamosa L. is probably the most popular fruit. It is also known as ‘Sitaphal’ or ‘Shariffa’. These can withstand drought better than many other fruit trees. Other species of the genus Annona providing edible fruits are A. reticulata L., A. muricata L., and A. cherimola L.

Custard Apple (Annona squamosa Linn.)

The custard apple, Annona squamosa L., also known as sweet-sop or sugar apple, is almost entirely eaten as a dessert fruit. Its pulp may be mixed with milk to form milk shake or made into ice-cream. The pulp has a pleasant texture and flavour. Several products like -squash, nectar, pulp butter, syrup, jam can be made from the pulp.

Custard apple is native to tropical America (Mexico). It is cultivated in Australia, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, India, Israel, Myanmar, Mexico, Philippines, Spain, Sri Lanka, South Africa, West Indies, USA and Cuba. In India it is popular in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Asssam, Bihar and West Bengal.

Cultivars: The cultivars vary in their shape, size, colour and eating quality. Some of the cultivars are Balanagar, Sangareddy Local, Chittorgarh, Barbados, British Guinea, Mammoth, Red Sitaphal, Yellow Sitaphal, Custard Apple Selection-1, Custard Apple Selection -2. Arka Sahan is a hybrid developed by ICAR-IIHR, Bangalore.

Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops of the world. The most important commercial citrus fruits in India is mandarin oranges followed by sweet oranges, lemons and acid limes. Citrus fruits are used for fresh fruit juices, processing into squashes, marmalades and its essential oils from peel are widely used in flavouring, perfumery and cosmetic industry. The citrus peel is one of the important sources for manufacture of pectin.

It is believed that most of the species under the genus citrus are native to tropical and subtropical regions of South-East Asia, particularly India, China and in the region between these two countries. The north-eastern region of India is considered as one of the natural homes for few species of citrus. The other major citrus producing countries of the world are Brazil, USA, India, China,Mexico, Spain, Egypt, Italy, Indonesia and Trukey.

Sweet Orange (Cirus sinensis Osbeck) or Mosambi

Sweet orange is one of the most widely favored citrus fruit of of the world. Its scientific name is Citurs sinensis Osbeck. The sweet oranges are generally round to oval in shape; tight skinned with solid central core. The skin is yellow to orange in colour, smooth and pulp is yellow to orange or reddish. The segments are tightly attached to one another. The commercially important varieties are Malta (Blood Red), Mosambi and Satgudi. Other exotic varieties like Valencia, Washington Navel of USA and Shamouti of Isreal.

Cherimoya is considered as the most esteemed of the fruits of the genus Annona (family Annonaceae). A. cherimola Mill., because of its limited distribution, has acquired few colloquial names, and most are merely local variations in spelling, such as chirimoya, cherimolia, chirimolla, cherimolier, cherimoyer. The cherimoya is believed to be indigenous to the interandean valleys of Ecuador, Colombia and Bolivia. It is cultivated in Australia, Hawai, Brazil, Mexico, India, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Spain, Costa Rica, Africa and Argentina. In India it is found growing in states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, (Nilgiris and Palani hills), Karnataka (the Nandi hills) and Andhra Pradesh (Telangana region).

It bears fruits with skin which is thin or thick, may be smooth with fingerprint-like markings or covered with conical or rounded protuberances. The sweet, juicy, white flesh is melting, subacid and very fragrant. The fruit is of a primitive form with spirally arranged carpels, resembling a raspberry. Each segment of flesh surrounds a single hard black bean-like seed.

Cultivars: Fingerprinted, Smooth, Tuberculate, Mammilate and Umbonate are the cultivars having different shapes, texture and morphology.

Uses

The flesh of the ripe cherimoya is most commonly eaten out of-hand or scooped with a spoon from the cut open fruit. It really needs no embellishment but some people in Mexico like to add a few drops of lime juice. Occasionally it is added to fruit salads or used for making sherbet or ice cream. Colombians strain out the juice, add a slice of lemon and dilute with ice-water to make a refreshing soft drink. The fruit has been fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage (Morton, 1987). In Jamaica, the dried flowers have been used as flavoring for snuff. All species of Annona can produce seed oil. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.

The carambola, Averrhoa carambola L., is believed to have originated in Malaysia and the Molucca but it has been cultivated in southeast Asia for many centuries. It belongs to the family Oxalidaceae. The carambola, Averrhoa carambola L., is usually called balimbing, belimbing, or belimbing manis (“sweet belimbing”), to distinguish it from the bilimbi or belimbing asam, A. bilimbi L. In Ceylon and India, the carambola has the alternate names of kamaranga, kamruk, or other variants of the native kamrakh.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sweet and sour forms are recognized a cultivar in India. In countries like Australia, Japan, Taiwan and, USA named cultivars are grown.

Uses

Fruits are mainly used for dessert purpose. Slightly unripe fruits are used for jelly and pickle. Unripe fruit is also used for dying as it contains potassium oxalate. It is a popular substitute for tamarind in cooking. The acid types of carambola have been used to clean and polish metal, especially brass, as they dissolve tarnish and rust. The juice will also bleach rust stains from white cloth. Unripe fruits are used in place of a conventional mordant in dyeing. Carambola wood is white, becoming reddish with age; close-grained, medium-hard. It has been utilized for construction and furniture.

Ber (Zizyphus) is egg-shaped fruit of orange or brown colour, with edible acid pulp and hard central stone. The Ber, Indian jujube, Z. mauritiana Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba L.) is adapted to warm climates. It belongs to the family Rhamnaceae. It is often called merely jujube, or Chinese date, which leads to confusion with the hardier species. Other English names are Indian Plum, Indian cherry and Malay jujube. In India, there are 90 or more cultivars differing in the habit of the tree, leaf shape, fruit form, size, color, flavor, keeping quality, and fruiting season (Morton, 1987). Ber (Zizyphus pss.) is one of the hardiest fruit trees cultivated in India. It is an ideal fruit crop for arid and semi-arid regions and even for waste lands. Ber has been recognized as a useful edible fruit since mythology of Ram and Shabari in India and depicted in Ramayana. Researchers mention both Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba and even the wild Z. nummularia.

Cultivars: Umran, Banarasi Karka, Seo, Gola.

Uses

The Jujube is classed with the raisin, date, and fig as a pectoral fruit, being nutritive and demulcent. It is eaten both fresh and dried. Bark is used for tanning. Leaves are laxative and used in throat trouble. Leaves are also used as a good fooder particularly in arid zones. The tree serves as a host for lac insects. Wood is used for making agricultural implements and tool handles. The preserved products made of ber fruit are murabba., candy, diced ber, dehydrated ber, ber pulp, ber jam etc.

Banana (Musa sp), is consumed both as a fruit and vegetable. The sweet desert cultivars are generally called bananas and the starchy cooking types are called plantains. It is an important food crop throughout the tropics. References to the banana is frequently made in the Vedic literature, where its use in religious rituals is quite common. Today, it is a leading tropical fruit in the world market with a high degree of export potentiality. Bananas arrives at the world markets the year round. Though India is the largest producer of banana in the world, Ecuador, Hondurus, Columbia, Costa Rica, and Panama are the leading banana exporter, while USA, Japan, Germany, France and UK are the main importing counties.

Banana is believed to have originated in the warm moist tropical regions of SouthEast Asia. Its cultivation is confined to region between 30° N and 30° S of Equator. Banana is grown in many countries namely India, Philippines, Thailand, Uganda, Zaire, Tanzania, Ivory coast, Burundi, Columbia, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Bangladesh, the Caribbean Islands, the canary Island, USA(Florida), Egypt, Australia, Sri Lanka.

Banana belongs to the family Musaceae and genus Musa. There are several species of Musa which involves both dipoilds and triploids. Most of the cultivated bananas are triploids. They are further classified based on their genomic status. Bananas and plantains are today grown in every humid tropical region and constitute the 4th largest fruit crop of the world, followed by the grape, citrus fruits and the apple.

Varieties/Cultivars: Though there are more than 25 different kinds of bananas grown in India, Grand Naine, Robusta, Poovan, Ney poovan, Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Tellachakrakeli, Red Banana, Nendran, Monthan, Batheesa, Hill Banana (Veerupakshi & Sirumalai) are the popular varieties grown all over the country with different local names.

Bael (Aegle marmelos, L.) belongs to the family Rutaceae and is an important indigenous fruit of India known since 2000-820 BC. Bael is considered to be native to India and is grown all over the country. It is also seen in south east Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Indonesia and Thailand. It is a hardy plant and can be grown even on marginal soils.

The leaves are trifoliate and aromatic. The leaves of the tree are used in religious offerings. The fruit is usually globose, grey or yellowish with small hard aromatic rind. The pulp is thick mucilaginous, orange yellow in colour with sweet scented aroma. The importance of bael fruit lies in its curative properties. It is used in Ayurveda for its medicinal properties.

There are no recognized or improved varieties of bael with a standard name. It usually goes with the name of locality or region it is grown in. Ayodhya, Etawah, Faizabad Local, Gonda Selection, Kagzi Bael, Kagzi Kalan, Mirzapuri, Darogaji, Ojha, Rampuri Azamati, Khamaria, Deoria Large, Gonda-1 and NB-5 are a few to name.

Uses

Bael fruits cut in half, or the soft types broken open, and the pulp, dressed with palm sugar, eaten for breakfast, as is a common practice in Indonesia. The pulp is often processed as nectar or “squash” (diluted nectar). A popular drink (called “sherbet” in India) is made by beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind. These drinks are consumed perhaps less as food or refreshment than for their medicinal effects.

Mature but still unripe fruits are made into jam, with the addition of citric acid. The pulp is also converted into marmalade or sirup, likewise for both food and therapeutic use, the marmalade being eaten at breakfast by those convalescing from diarrhea and dysentery. A firm jelly is made from the pulp alone, or, better still, combined with guava to modify the astringent flavor. The pulp is also pickled. The young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand and used to season food in Indonesia. They are said to reduce the appetite. An infusion of the flowers is a cooling drink. (Morton, 1987).

The avocado (Persea americana Mill) belonging to the family Lauraceae, may have originated in southern Mexico but was cultivated from the Rio Grande to central Peru long before the arrival of Europeans. It was then distributed into the West Indies and all other parts of the tropical and subtropical world. It reached India probably in 1892. Now it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala in India, to a limited extent.

Cultivars/Varieties: Fuerte, Hass, Lula, Pollck, Purple, Green.

Uses

Avocado is low in sugar content and rich in avocado butter, hence can be highly recommended as a high energy food for diabetics. The pulp of the fruit can be preserved by freezing, and can be used as sandwich filling or spread, in ice creams and milk shakes. Though the fruit is high in fat content, it is harmless unlike animal fat. The pulp has butter consistency, and looks very much like cow’s butter and bland in taste with a nutty flavour, without any offensive odour or smell. Its aroma resembles that of tender coconut.

The apricot, Prunus armeniaca, L. is a species of Prunus, classified with the plum in the subgenus Prunus. Apricot is believed to have been originated in North-east China and later spread to several parts of the world. The important apricot producing countries are China, Turkey, Italy, Spain, Greece, USA, Morocco, France, Romania, Iraq, Bulgaria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, India and Australia. In India it is cultivated in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and North East Himalayan region.

Cultivars/Varieties: Hemskerk, Moor park, Kaisha, New Large Early, New Castle, Royal, Raksona, Shiply Early, St. Ambroise, Wenatchee, Chaubattia Alankar, Chaubattia Madhu, Chaubattia Kesri.

Uses

It is used in many ways, such as, in the preparation of jam, nectar, beverages, puree, leather, etc. The karnel is a source of cooking oil. Leaves are used as fodder. Oil cake is used as cattle feed. Dried apricot is an important commercial product.

Apple is the pomaceous fruit (Malus domestica) in the rose family (Rosaceae). It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans.

The apple originated in South-West Asia which includes Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Soviet Central Asia, Himalayan India and Pakistan. It is grown extensively in the temperate region. The major apple growing countries are Australia, Argentina, Brazil, China, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Gemany, USA, India, etc. In India states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and mountanous region of Uttar Pradesh are the major apple producers.

Cultivars/Varieties: The apple varieties are divided into three groups based on their maturing periods. The early season varieties grown in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttranchal are: Tydeman’s Early(P), Irish Peach, Early Shanburry(P), Michael Molies, Benoni Fenny, Benoni Delicious, Schlomit Starkrimson, and Chaubattia Princess. The Mid season varieties are: American Mother, Red Delicious, Richared Razakwar, Starking Delicious, Vance Delicious, Jonathan(P), McIntosh(P), Top Red Lord Lam, Cox’s Orange Pippin(P), Cortland bourne(P), Red Chief, Red Gold(P), Golden Delicious(P), Oregon Spur, Queen,s Apple, Redspur, Rome Beauty, Scarlet Siberian. The late season varieties are: Golden Delicious(P), King’s Pippin, Rymer, Yellow Newton(P), American Apirouge, Buckingham(P), Winter Banana, Kerry Pippin, Granny Smith(P), Sunhari Chamure, Golden Delicious(P), Red Delicious, Ambri Baldwin, and Yellow Newton(P).

Aonla is said to be indigenous to tropical south-eastern Asia, particularly in central and southern India (Firminger, 1947). The genus comprises of about 350 species. It is also called Indian gooseberry, amla, nelli, myrobalan, amlaki, amali, ambala, amlika, sirikai, amalakamu in different regional languages in India. Aonla is one of the richest sources of natural ascorbic acid which is protected by high polyphenols content during storage and processing. Aonla is indigenous to central and southern India. It is found it Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China and Malacca. In India, it is widely cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Chhatisgarh and Jharkhand.

Cultivars/Varieties: Some of the well-known improved varieties are Banarasi, Chakaiya, Krishna (NA-5), Kanchan (NA-4), Hathi Jhul, Neelam (NA-7), Amrit (NA-6), Balwant, Anand-1, 2 & 3.

Uses

The fruit is widely used in ayurvedic preparation due to its pharmacological properties. The fruits are made into preserve (murabba), sauce, candy, dried chips, etc., Fruits are pickled and made into, jelly, toffee, etc., bark and leaves are used for tanning and wood is used for preparing hookah.

Fruits have been one of the earliest foods of mankind. Ancient Indian texts like Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, religious books and puranas are replete with mention of various kinds of fruits. The mango is believed to have been grown for more than 4000 years. Mention of apple, the forbidden fruit, in the Holy Bible is well known. The date-palm is recorded as the fruit crop grown by mankind since 7000 BC. The first book in the world on fruit culture is said to have been the one written on litchi in 1056 AD. In the earlier period of human civilization, fruits served both as food and medicine. Fruits, nuts and tubers were the staples for early wanderers and gatherers. The settled agriculture made mankind more dependent on cereals, pulses and oilseeds for staples and fruits, vegetables and nuts became more a medicine than food.

Many evolutionary and anthropological changes occurred in course of time with changing food habits. At every stage of major change, food habits determined the life expectancy. After completing a full cycle or helix, time has returned to focus on fruits and vegetables again as food, from a stand point of health and wellbeing. From being trees of wild and forests in earlier period, fruit crops became confined to palaces and orchards of Kings in medieval period. In modern Era, it came to stay as commercial commodities dictating the terms of trade. Due to its growing commercial importance the governments across the globe focused to expand the area under fruit crops and cross border trade in several fruits and vegetables. Horticulture research started prioritizing the traits in fruits that determine the economics of trade. In line with these developments, Indian government assigned great significance to horticultural crops since 8^th five-year plan period, and the allocation for horticultural research was increased to `110.2 crores from `31.96 crores in the previous plan. During the 10^th five-year plan period in 2005-06, the National Horticulture Mission was started. As the net outcome of these efforts, the area under fruit crops increased from 2.87 million ha in 1991-92 to 6.48 million ha in 2016-17. The production increased from 28.63 million tonnes to 92.85 million tonnes and productivity from 9.96 tonnes/ha to 14.33 tonnes/ha during the same period (Anon, 2017).

Out of the total value of output of agricultural crops, fruits and vegetables contribute the lion’s share of 23%. The major fruit crops producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal and Chattisgarh. The major fruit crops grown are banana, mango, citrus fruits (sweet orange, mandarin, lime & lemons), peach, guava, papaya, pomegranate, sapota, apple, pineapple, ber, litchi, avocado, etc. Several minor crops like jackfruit, aonla, bael, jamun, custard apple, fig, karonda, phalsa, carambola, etc., are also grown. Some exotic fruit crops like dragon fruit, kiwi, durian, Malayan apple, rambutan, etc., are also getting imported either due to its extra ordinary taste or exotic flavor.

Food, Water and Air are three essential elements for existence and sustenance of life. Primarily food is manufactured by the plants by trapping the energy of Sun in presence of carbondioxide and water. Foods can be broadly classified into energy foods and protective foods. While energy is required for all bodily functions, protective foods confer a degree of resistance against diseases, corrects some disorder and prevents occurrence of certain conditions that occur due to deficiency of certain elements and phytochemicals. The balanced diets are said to be those which have an appropriate amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. All these three components play certain essential role in the process of metabolism. Deficiency or insufficiency of these major food components may lead to energy deficient disease conditions and are considered responsible for malnutrition world wide. Energy deficiency can threaten the existence of life. Food grains, tubers and roots are major sources of carbohydrates, and proteins. Sufficient intake of carbohydrates, proteins and fats alone does not ensure health. Health and wellbeing are the two important aspects of life, which makes it worth living. For being healthy, besides energy, body requires minerals and vitamins which are present mainly in fruits and vegetables. The role phytochemicals play in cleansing the body and fight against diseases, was understood quite recently. Therefore, for a healthy life we need to consume a balanced diet comprising of appropriate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fruits, vegetables and nuts. While the former three can be consumed based on the energy requirement of an individual, one should consume at least 180 and 300 grams of fruits and vegetables respectively everyday.

India is the second most populous country in the world with a population of 1.3 billion and is expected to reach 2 billion by 2050. Though the country transformed itself from a food deficit nation to surplus donor in agricultural commodities in a short span of 70 years, it also encountered several stumbling block along the way. In post independence era, the governments of the day adopted a multi-pronged strategy of population control, development of irrigational infrastructure, high yielding varieties of crops and agricultural development schemes that resulted in green revolution, white revolution, rainbow revolution. etc., which saddled the country in a comfortable position as far as food production is concerned. In the process, what went unnoticed was the hidden hunger resulting in malnourished population with different kinds of ailments. ‘Hidden hunger’ manifested due to an imbalanced diet, lacking in micronutrients–vitamins, minerals and other essential diet components. Serious among them, which plague the country even today are iron deficiency causing anaemia, Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) causinig blindness in children and increased risk of other illnesses and death. Anaemia and calcium deficiency among women and stuntend growth in children are the other diet related diseases. About 10% of population are also suffering due to over feeding or mal-noursihment. Economic burden and loss of human productivity due to lifestyle diseases is taking a toll in India during the last couple of decades.

At present, the world can very broadly be divided into two main categories. (i) Industrialized countries where food is plentiful and the diet is varied, and the most prevalent diet-related disorders are cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, obesity, diabetes and osteoporosis. (ii) Developing countries, where food is scarce and malnutrition is a major problem or where traditional foods and cultural practices are being replaced by western-style diets resulting in lifestyle diseases/disorder. India falls in the second category. Diversified food habit is one of the direct impacts of increasing disposable income in India. Global epidemiological studies with reference to food habits have shown that increase in lifestyle diseases are directly related to reduced consumption of fruits and vegetables and increased consumption of animal food (meat and animal fat).

Abstract

Medicinal plants in recent years attracted much attention of researchers and become the basis of modern pharmaceuticals because of their active biologically compounds. Boerhavia diffusa commonly known as Punarnava belongs to family Nyctaginaceae is a widely distributed herb that has been naturalized in many areas of the world. It is utilized as a green leafy vegetable in many Asian and African countries besides possessing anticancer, antiestrogenic, immunomodulatory and antiamoebic activities due to the presence of valuable phytochemical compounds. Medicinal value of this plant is because of presence of specific kind of phytoconstituents like alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, lipids, steroids, lignins, proteins, boeravinone A-F, glycoproteins and carbohydrates which are present in huge quantity in this herb. In view of its therapeutic importance, it is widely used in Ayurvedic, Siddha, Homoeopathy, Unani, Modern and Tribal medicinal system. Whole plant sometime its parts are utilized for curing different disorders by tribal people in India. It is a well known ethnomedicinal plant species mostly found in subtropical and tropical regions of the world.

Abstract

Lianas are slightly lesser known angiosperms, grows typically in the form of climbing vines mostly in tropical and subtropical forests. Such plants are characterized by scandent thick stems, woody stem in nature and vary in shape and size. They depend on supports in the form of trees, fence and usually climb upward towards the sunlight as they needed for their survival. Keeping the importance of lianas in forests and household, this study was conducted to document the liana angiosperms growing in Western Himalaya along with their medicinal potential for human and animals. This study reveals a total 64 lianas species belonging to 24 families recorded from Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. This investigation also provided with medicinal potential of these species, which is used as ethnomedicine by local people living in the interior regions of hills and mountains of Himalaya. In this communication, we highlight lianas as an example of an underestimated forest element that, on the one hand, is a key component in and around forests. This study also helps in conservation of endangered liana species in Himalaya.

Abstract

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f) Nees (Family: Acanthaceae) is one of the most popular and valuable medicinal plants with high trade value. It is out mentioned in various systems of medicine since ancient times in Indian, Malay, Chinese and Thai. Andrographis paniculata is native to Southeast Asian countries i.e., India, China, Taiwan and Sri Lanka. In India it is distributed from Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam to Mizoram and also cultivated throughout the country. The plant being used as Ayurvedic medicine in various diseases. The principal chemical constituents are lactones, diterpenoid and flavonoids. Andrographolide, neoandrographolide are the principle secondary metabolites of Andrographis paniculata with more than 80 compounds reported till now. Modern studies revealed that Andrographis paniculata has an extensive range of pharmacological activities such as hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antidiarrhoeal, anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), anti-oxidant and anti-pyretic. Therefore, such plants need value addition for product development.

Abstract

Medicinal plants are being widely used either as single drug or in combination in health care delivery system. Hemidesmus indicus is a rare and endangered plant of Deccan plateau of India and is a potential source of several active principles of therapeutic value. Its immense medicinal values can bring H. indicus as a royal source of herbal medicine in India. It contains various phytoconstituents belonging to the category glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, sterols and volatile oils. The main pharmacological activity of H. indicus include anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidants, anti cancerous activity, anti acne activity, anti venom activity, antinociceptive, renoprotective, heptoprotective activity, anti arthritis and anti leprotic activity. The root of Hemidesmus indicus was used mainly for the preparation of drink locally called as nannari or sugandhapala. The drink is medicinal, which cools the system, gives good appetite and acts as a blood purifier and roots are used for preparation of chutneys and pickles.

Abstract

Natural plant products are known to prevent several deleterious diseases. This potency of plants to act as medicinal therapeutic source is due to the presence of various bioactive compounds including alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids and glucosinolates (GSLs). Among array of these compounds, GSLs are important class of plant secondary metabolites. The mechanical or physical injury to plant leads to the activation of this “GSL-myrosinase” system resulting in the formation bioactive compounds viz., thiocyanates, nitriles, isothiocyanates, and epithionitriles. Out of these compounds, isothiocyanates (ITCs) are well known for their therapeutic properties. Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) commonly known as “mustard oil” is one of the naturally occurring ITC which is derived from hydrolysis of sinigrin, the major GSL in cruciferous vegetables like horseradish, wasabi, brussels radish etc. Due to high bioavailability in human body, it has been widely studied for its important bioactivities. Therefore, this review highlights the significant biomodulatory effects viz., antioxidant, antimutagenic, in vitro, in vivo anticancer, antimicrobial, and insecticidal activities of AITC.

Abstract

India is known as hub of medicinal plants in recent years due to availability of variety of species in different regions which is used in treatment of frequently occurred local diseases. Family a pocynaceae is one of frequently used angiosperm members as medicine in different Indian system of medicine. At present, the genus Rauvolfia is represented by 77 species distributed across the globe, known to contains various unique active phytochemicals in the form of flavonoids, phytosterols, oleoresins, steroids, tannins and alkaloids. R. serpentina (also known as Indian snake root or sarpaghandha) and R. tetraphylla (also known as devil root or barachandrika) are two very important distinctive medicinal shrubs growing in India having wide application in traditional system of medicine for curing human disease and various herbal formulations available in market using these plants. In the present communication, we have discussed the biology, chemistry, pharmacology, cultivation practices and future perspectives of R. serpentina and R. tetraphylla for conservation and as a potential plants for future application in herbal medicine discovery.

Abstract

Plants have been used both in the prevention and cure of various diseases throughout the centuries. An important prerequisite for proper utilization of plants as natural resources is that we should have full knowledge regarding their occurrence, frequency, distribution and phenology. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume (Araceae) is a perennial herb that has been reported in various literatures to be used traditionally in various countries for the treatment of different diseases. Scientific evaluations of this plant have revealed that it harbors various phytoconstituents like alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins and several other chemical constituents which have pharmacological implications with as antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, anticancer and immunomodulatory activities. This chapter collaborates the data with respect to the ethnobotanical and ethno medicinal importance of Arisaema jacquemontii and its role as a natural source of phytoconstituents that have therapeutic implications.

Abstract

Recently there has been increasing interest in plants and plant-derived compounds as medicinal agents. In Ayurveda, a wide range of medicinal uses of Pterocarpus santalinus is described. Many important bioactive phytocompounds have been extracted and identified from the heartwood of P. santalinus. The major bioactive compounds present in the heartwood of P. santalinus are santalin A and B, savinin, calocedrin, pterolinus (K,L) and pterostilbenes. These phyto-compounds present only in small amounts and have more effect than nutrients. The heartwood of the plant is used traditionally for the treatment of inflammation, diabetes, headache, skin diseases, jaundice, and in wound-healing. A wide range of pharmacological activities and health benefits of P. santalinus have been reported, including antioxidative, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties, and protective effects on liver, gastric mucosa and nervous system. All these protective effects were attributed to bioactive compounds present in P. santalinus. Most of the secondary metabolites reported from this plant are terpenes, phenolics, flavones and sterols. The present communication gives the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of P. santalinus on health with up-to-date information.

Abstract

Blumea lacera (Burm f.) DC. belonging to family Asteraceae is an annual herb with a strong odour. This herb is distributed throughout the plains of North-west India upto an elevation of 2,900 m and is also reported from Tropical Africa, South East Asia, Bangladesh, Nepal, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. Blumea lacera is a plant with camphor-like odour, and is highly variable, grows in grassland, field, roadside and forest edge. Traditionally, it is used internally and externally as a hemostatic and anti-inflammatory agent. The juice of leaves along with black pepper (Piper nigrum) is given to cure bleeding piles. This herb is also offered as anthelmintic (especially for threadworm). Leaves and roots are used as astringent, diuretic and febrifuge and even in cuts and wounds. Bruises and ulcers can also be treated by applying fresh juice or extract. For treating piles (Hemorrhoids), the leaves of B. lacera has been used in ethnomedicinal practices.The phytoconstituents present in leaves are mainly terpenoids, glycosides, volatile oils, some glycoalkaloids and many more yet to be determined. B. lacera has been used as an ingredient in many pharmaceutical preparations. The chapter gives a brief idea about the ethnomedicinal usage, phytochemical profile, pharmacological usage and the future perspective of B. lacera. and would help the researchers for better understanding of this plant as well as developing plant derived molecules in drug discovery process.

Abstract

The percentage of people with obesity and diabetes has increased globally both in developed and developing countries but highest burden is on the indigenous people who are also socially disadvantaged. The modern medical treatment of diabetes is based generally on oral hypoglycaemic agents and insulin. So, there has always been a search for new anti-diabetic agents which are of lower cost and can cure the disease without harming other body functions. Plants being readily available in the Indian-subcontinent have been an important source of drug in the traditional system of medicine in India since time immemorial. The utilization of plants for alternative treatment to combat diabetes using herbal remedies has also been substantiated by World Health Organization. In this communication, we tried to list some scientifically proven anti-diabetic plants commonly available in the Indian subcontinent which can be used in the treatment and management of diabetes.

Abstract

Wild plants have a great role in the lives of tribal peoples living in and around the world by way of providing products for both food and medicine. Such herbal plants are the core of research, which can solve several health issues as well as nutritional supplements. Keeping on the view we have presented a summary of medicinal plants used as nutraceuticals collected from various regions of India. This communication describes 35 herbal plants used as a medicine against different diseases as well as their nutritional applicability.

Abstract

For thousands of years, plants have provided medicine to human and animals. People still depend on plants for food and shelter. The present surveys and investigation covers Jasrota Wildlife Sanctuary, Kathua District (J&K) situated in Southeastern parts of Asia (India). This communication mainly focused on ten high value plant species belonging to eight families of medicinal value being used to cure different types of ailment growing in Jasrota Wildlife Sanctuary and surrounding areas of Kathua district. These species are Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume, Centella asiatica L. (Urb.) Fl., Cissampelos pareira L., Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm., Cryptolepis dubia M.R.Almeida, Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don, Justicia adhatoda L., Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thomson, Vitex negundo L. and Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. It also deal with morphological enumeration, ecology and habitat, ethnobotanical uses and active chemical constituent present in studied plant species.

Abstract

India harbors a wide variety of medicinal plants used traditionally in various remedies to treat livestock ailments. The therapeutic value of these plants attributes due to the concentration of several bioactive compounds present in them. Indigenous tribal communities are the treasurer of age-old traditional knowledge which inhabits Asian country since centuries. District Poonch exhibits a rich repository of traditional knowledge as major part of the population comprised of nomadic tribes such as Gujjars and Bakerwals which are still practicing the primitive traditional ways to treat diseases. In the present investigation, the traditional herbal plants and associated remedies for treatment of various veterinary disorders are presented. A total of 34 plant species belonging to 30 genera and 21 families have been reported which are being used by indigenous people for ethnoveterinary purposes. The majority of ethnoveterinary plants recorded from the district belong to families such as Ranunculaceae and Araceae (4 species each), Acoraceae, Amaryllidaceae, Apiaceae, Fagaceae, Lamiaceae, Primulaceae, Rutaceae (2 species each) and rest of the families members were represented by one species each. The frequently used plant parts are roots (30.23%), followed by tubers (18.6%), leaves (16.28%), fruits and whole plant (13.95% each), stems (4.65%) and seeds (2.33%). It has been observed that numerous formulations are made from these parts which are used for the treatment of various cattle infections such as abdominal colic, allergic infection, anestrous, chest diseases, constipation, cough, digestive troubles, FMD, fracture, galactagogue, gaseous bloat, induce puberty, internal injury, lung disease, pneumonia, quick discharge, removal of Leech, sexual stimulant, skin infection, snake-bite, stomachache and weakness with snake bite being dominant. The present study infers that the documentation of ethnoveterinary knowledge from the district requires utmost attention and may give leads or serves for further biochemical studies for the discovery of novel plant based drugs which will certainly helps in commercialization and betterment of tribals through benefit resource sharing.

Abstract

Ladakh, a geographically isolated region, is known for its tough terrain and harsh climatic conditions. It remains cut off from rest of the country for 6-7 months in a year during winters. With limited food, fuel and other resources the people here have developed and sustained a long unique relationship with plants. They have been using both cultivated and wild ones as medicine, food, and fodder since centuries. The local populace possesses good knowledge of traditional methods of utilization of plant resources for diverse purposes, which they have acquired from their ancestors. However, this indigenous knowledge and age old practices are fast disappearing from the tribal communities, and there is an urgent need to save this treasure from getting irretrievably lost. Therefore, the present study is an attempt to document the various wild and cultivated plants along with their ethnobotanical uses as per the ancient practices of these tribal communities. For this purpose, an ethnobotanical survey was conducted in various villages of lower Ladakh. The investigation revealed a host of plants put to use by the natives in different indigenous ways. The scientific, family and local names of 50 species belonging to 48 genera and 31 families along with their uses have been enlisted in the present communication. As per the information gathered from the local inhabitants, these plants are categorized into five different groups. More than 50% of these are used as medicines, 38% are edible, 24% as fuel and 20% as fodder. Approximately 38% plants are employed in construction, as ornamentals, or sources of dyes, incense, cosmetics, etc.

Abstract

Traditional knowledge on plants and their uses by tribal indigenous culture is helpful in the conservation of biodiversity. During 2017-2018, ethnobotanical investigations of the plants growing in Neelum Valley in District Bandipora (a part of Kashmir Himalaya) were carried out to collect information regarding different usages of the plants species growing in the region through questionnaire and interviews. Floristically, a total of 57 species belonging to 54 genera and 38 families were investigated to be used as medicine, food, fodder, timber, fuel wood, vegetable/edible fruit, resin yield and herbal tea purposes. On the basis of the floristic analysis of the study area, the leading family recorded was Asteraceae with (11%) species co-dominated by Rosaceae (9%). In terms of habit forms, herbaceous (70%) growth form is the most dominant. The most frequently used plant parts are leaves (26%) followed by whole plant (23%) and roots (19%). The plant documented cured different categories of diseases, the most common diseases such as diarrhea, fever, digestive problems, urinary troubles, rheumatism, eye diseases, skin diseases and wounds. Based on investigated knowledge, the data are discussed under sub-head as single, double and multi-diseases curing plants. The present study can provide a baseline data for future researchers, policy makers, common public, land managers, and the other stakeholders to develop scientifically-informed strategies for conservation of natural resources and sustainable use of plant resources in hotspot regions like Himalayas and other similar biodiversity rich sites.

Abstract

Family Apiaceae (or Umbelliferae) is one of the largest plant group represented by 418 genera and 3257 species (TPL 2013). The plants members are mostly aromatic, used by local populace as traditional medicines as well as spice and condiments in their routine food preparations. They have characteristic aroma due to the presence of some essential oils or oleoresin. Members of this family possess large number of compounds having antibacterial, hepato-protective, vaso-relaxant, inducing apoptosis and antitumor activities. Although the family is distributed globally but Indian subcontinent is a major center of its diversification, where more than 200 species are distributed specifically in the Himalayan eco-terrains. Jammu province (Jammu and Kashmir, India) in North Western Himalaya having unique climatic conditions supports a large variety of medicinal and aromatic plants, and amongst these Apiaceae are well known. Local people uses these plants as vegetables, for culinary purposes and valued as traditional medicine like Bunium persicum (black cumin), Carum carvi (caraway), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Cuminum cyminum (cumin), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Narthex asafoetida (Heeng), Trachyspermum ammi (ajwain) and Centella asiatica (Brahmi). People in Jammu province have their unique traditional way of using plants, knowledge of which is being transferred from generation to generation through oral dialect. As the data on the numbers of Apiaceae is scattered in the literature and difficult to be procured by the researchers. Therefore the current attempt is made so that the data along with some quantitative statistics can be provided at one platform only.

Abstract

In developing countries, about 80 percent of the world population depends on traditional medicines for their primary healthcare as estimated by World Health Organization. In a recent floristic survey undertaken in Chithara Village Panchayat recorded a very rich diversity of wild medicinal plants. Based on extensive literature search, of the total 272 plants, 96% species were known to have marginal to outstanding medicinal properties and uses. Among the plants, ten species namely, Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Cannabis sativa L., Cissampelos pareira L., Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt, Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Euphorbia hirta L., Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., Justicia adhatoda L., Solanum americanum Mill. and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal were found to be very important as they possess medicinal properties for curing a large number of diseases in traditional system of medicines in India and other parts of the world. The whole plants including root, stem and leaves are utilized traditionally for curing various ailments such as abdominal pain, cold, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, inflammation, fever, rheumatism, sexual disorders, skin diseases, respiratory diseases etc. These plants are also reported to contain numerous important phytochemicals such as alkanes, amino acids, flavonoids, organic acids, polyphenolic compounds, polyphenols, steroids, tannins, terpenes etc. which qualifies their various medicinal properties. Plants are reported to yield potent drug such as vasicine and vasicinone (by A. vasica), bacosoids (B. monnieri) and withanolides (W. somnifera). The paper provides the details of traditional medicinal usages and chemical constituents of ten high value medicinal plants recorded from the study area.

Abstract

Plants are an integral component of life in many ethnic communities. Plant-based medicaments have been used since time immemorial as curative and protective agents for prolonging life of humans and animals by combating a plethora of ailments. One such ailment affecting women of reproductive age-group is leucorrhea. The study aimed at systematically documenting the precious traditional knowledge regarding the plants traditionally used for curing leucorrhea in Jammu and Kashmir. A total of 55 infomants (39 females and 16 males) between the age group 25-94 years were selected and interviewed for extracting ethnomedicinal information and 29 plant species belonging to 28 genera and 23 families were observed to be of ethnomedicinal significance in the treatment of leucorrhea in Jammu and Kashmir. Fabaceae was observed to be the frequently encountered family. Bulk of the taxa were observed to grow in wild habitat and majority of them were herbs. Seeds were observed to be of highest therapeutic significance and ethnomedicinal formulations were prepared in the form of powder, decoction, paste, etc and all of these were administered orally. The present study may serve as a base line data for further research and will go a long way in the treatment of leucorrhea thereby promoting well being of women folk. Advanced investigations are required to validate the time-tested information associated with medicinal flora to determine the identity of phytochemicals linked with leucorrhea, so that compounds of pharmacological application having prospective relevance in the alleviation of human maladies may be discovered.

Abstract

Lichenized fungi or lichens represent the most successful symbiotic organisms on earth. They are the inconspicuous group of lower plants having numerous properties. Their different growth forms namely crustose, foliose and fruticose have been put to use in one way or the other. Since ancient times, they were used as food, fodder, dye and in perfumery. Lichens are a rich source of several important secondary metabolites because of which they are widely used as a source of medicine against several diseases and to improve the health of humans as well as animals. Most of the information related to the usage of lichens is gathered from the traditional knowledge holders. Therefore, there is a need to explore and document this traditional knowledge associated with lichens. The present paper thus makes an attempt to present and document the valued information on the ethnobiological uses of lichens from the Northwestern parts of the Himalayas, if not, the undocumented information will be lost for all the future generations. Ethnobiology of 39 species of lichens belonging to 08 families is being presented in this communication.

Abstract

Wild plants of medicinal value are the embodiment of knowledge perception gift from our ancestors and these plays a significant role in curing various human health disorders. This gifted knowledge of economic plants used by the local people usually has long narrations for use in their daily activities. Considering the value of indigenous knowledge associated with plants, a study was undertaken on herbaceous communities in Atraulia area (Burhanpur tehsil), district Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh. During the investigation, a total of 71 informants (22 females and 49 males) were interviewed and data regarding ethnobotanical information on wild plant species were documented and analysed. The results indicated a total of 169 species belonging to 41 families used in indigenous herbal preparation as medicine from Atraulia area by local tribal people. The dominant growth forms were the annual herbs represented by 91 species, followed by 46 species of perennial nature and 32 species of biennial growth. Therefore, we can conclude that this region is rich in herbaceous plants and plant used as medicine is wide spread in the study area. This communication deals with demography of the informants, botanical name of herbaceous plants, family, part used, disease cure, use report, frequency of use and recommendation for conservation of unique valueable resources.

Abstract

Asteraceae is one of the largest family of flowering plants and have been used by mankind for a variety of purposes including food, medicine, cooking oils, sweeteners and tea infusions. In India, Asteraceae is 4^th largest family of angiosperms and ranked third among dominant families of angiosperms in Arunachal Pradesh. The indigenous communities of Arunachal Pradesh possess a rich knowledge on utilization of the plant resources around them for food, fodder, medicine and other purposes. Due to the remoteness and inaccessibility, the indigenous communities are mostly depended on their traditional medicines using plant resources around them for treating minor and major ailments. The effectiveness of these plants in traditional medicine has also been confirmed after isolation and characterization of the bioactive compounds responsible for their pharmacological activities. The present study is a review on ethnomedicinal plants belonging to Asteraceae family that are being used by different tribes of the state. The tribal communities have been using 36 medicinal plant species from this family as recorded from published literature and field study. Maximum number of species have been found to exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihelminthic, analgesic and anti-malarial properties. Among the recorded species, Ageratum conyzoides, Spilanthes acmella, Artemisia nilagirica, A. maritima, Blumea balsamifera, B. lacera, Eclipta prostrata, Vernonia cinerea and Chrysanthemum indicum were already being used in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Folk and Sowa-Rigpa systems of Indian Medicine. Therefore, the study highlighted the pharmacological potential of ethnomedicinal plantsfrom Asteraceae family which would provide opportunities for future drugdiscovery.

Abstract

Ethnobotany is the area of study which include direct interaction of human and plants. This communication compiles and evaluates 301 ethnobotanically important medicinal plants used by ethnic tribes for the treatment of different ailments living in Uttarakhand Himalaya. The state is a home of five major tribes, viz., Bhoxa, Bhotiya, Tharu, Raji, and Jaunsari. These tribal people have age-old relations with plants, and their indigenous knowledge passed from one generation to another. In this communication, a total of 90 plant families were reviewed and recorded that Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Amaranthaceae Apiaceae, Combretaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Anacardiaceae and Malvaceae members are frequently used as medicinal plants. Total 68 roots of different species, followed by leaves of 55 species, whole plants of 29 species, fruits of 26 species and 28 types of seeds of different plants families used by locals for the treatment of various diseases such as fever, cold, cough, diabetes, skin problems, digestive problems and other associated ailments. The mode of application of herbal formulations varies from tribe to tribe. Herbaceous communities belonging to 160 species were the frequently used plant groups followed by trees, shrubs, and lianas. The decoction was recorded as the most frequently used method of preparation. Medicinal plants sold in the market was not primary for local people rather herbal plants locally available used as food, spice and beverages preparations. Therefore, there is a need for proper documentation and conservation planting of these unique medicinal plants growing in the Himalayas.

Abstract

The paper deals with taxonomy, ethnobotany and threat status of lesser known liana species Hodgsonia heteroclita (Roxb.) Hook.f. & Thomson. The local people use in terms of foods and rites and its role in ecosystem have been reported. Local people used the seeds of liana as food because of high nutritive value. Threat assessment has been following IUCN version 3.1 to evaluate the threat status of the species in Sikkim Himalaya. Out of the five criteria, data on two criteria could be collected and was used to evaluate the threat category of the species. The criteria used for threat assessment were (a) reduction in population and (b) geographical range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) or B2 (area of occupancy) or both. Considering the population status and geographical range of the species, it has been classified as “Least Concern” (A1acd; B2ab(ii,iv)).

Abstract

The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya depends on wild medicinal plants for curing a number of ailments since ages. The traditional knowledge systems which evolved through trial and error method are an integral part of their culture. The objectives of the present study were to highlight the medicinal plants used by the Khasi tribe to treat various diseases, provide scientific validation of the medicinal plants by pharmacological screening using secondary literature and suggest strategies for its sustainable management. A total of 363 plants distributed in 283 genera and 129 families were documented. The life forms of these plants were in the order of herb > tree > shrub > climber > parasite > epiphyte. The herbal remedies for treating various ailments are prepared by using the whole plant either individually or in combination with other plant parts. Cross validation with the help of secondary literature showed the presence of active compounds in these plants. Therefore, it is suggested that traditional knowledge should be properly documented and scientifically explored with more emphasis on species specific phytochemicals and their mode of action.

Abstract

Since pre-historic times plants have tendered their services to mankind in the form of food, shelter and medicine. Due to the advancement of human civilization, various folklore systems of medicines were developed across the globe. Among the various folklore system of medicine, Sowa-Rigpa” is one of the oldest well recognised and widely accepted system of folk-lore medicine in the world. It is one of the commonly used of system of medicine in different parts of Tibet, Bhutan, China, former Soviet Union (some parts), Himalayan ranges, Magnolia and, Nepal. The exact origin of Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine is still not known. In the present scenario due to the awareness among the people about the determental effects of the modern chemical drugs, people preferred to use herbal based system of medicine to treat diseases. So, it is needed to understand the floristic wealth of tradional system of medicine to identify the important plants with potential source of drug candidate molecules. In the present chapter an attempt has been made to study the folklore plants used in Tibetan Mountain based Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine and food. Total 332 plant species presented as the most important in Sowa-Rigpa system of medium.

1. House Plant

The screwpines or kewda plants are characteristics of many tropical regions with long ringed trunks, bracing roots and crowns of Dracaena-like foliage. The young plants are amongst the most popular foliage plants for home decoration as the plants do not flower at early stages (Wickham, 1950). They are also grown as pot and tub specimens for green house, residence, veranda and lawn decoration where their stiff clustered foliage gives them a formal decorative character. They may be kept as indoor ornamental foliage plants in the warm and semi light places of a house. (Wickham, 1982a).

2. Fence

The plant is useful for binding the soil, so checks soil erosion and not browsed by the cattle due to its spiny leaves; hence sometimes used as fence around the crop field in the coastal districts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Gujrat. The plants are often used for hedges as in the Casuarina plantations at Puri of Odisha (Haines, 1961a) (Fig. 17).

Kewda plants are mostly propagated through vegetative means. The common propagating materials used are ground suckers. The planting materials are planted in paired-row method maintaining a spacing of 4m from plant to plant and row to row keeping a spacing of 6 m between paired rows. In a field of one hectare, a minimum plant population of 500 plants in the field and 150 plants on the field bunds with a total of 650 plants are maintained. A fertilizer dose of 30:15:15 kg NPK/ha and 4 cartloads (100 cft) of FYM/ha are applied. The planting of collected ground suckers is normally done in the field just before monsoon after thorough land preparation under rainfed condition.The earthing-up of the plants are done up to five years of planting for quick initiation of flowering at the age of 5 years after planting. During the first year, the operational cost per hectare comes to Rs.28,900/- and from 2^nd to 5^th years, it comes to Rs.6,600 per year and then the maintenance cost from 6^th year onwards comes to Rs.6,000/- per year. The details of the operational cost per hectare of kewda cultivation under rainfed condition of coastal Ganjam district is given at Table 23. Kewda plant comes to flower on the 5^th year of planting, but the annual net profit begins on the 6^th year of planting and the cumulative net profit starts on the 10^th year (Table 24). The economic viability of kewda plantations is observed from 10^th to 30^th year of planting and after 30^th year, the net profit declines. A farmer can earn an annual profit of Rs.61,000/- per hectare of kewda cultivation from 11^th to 15^th year, which goes on increasing and from 26^th to 30^th year, the annual net return reached to Rs.1,23,400/- with a cumulative return of Rs.4,04,970/- on the 30^th year of planting. Then at the age of 35^th year, it declines to Rs.1,07,800/ - and at 40^th year to Rs.87,000/- per annum (Table 24). Although the profit was calculated only on the basis of sale of flowers yield, some additional profit can be obtained from other plant parts like leaves and stilt roots. After distillation of one lakh flowers, the spent over flowers and plant parts can be utilized as fertilizer/manure by selling at a rate of Rs.1000/- per batch. In the two blocks (viz., Chhatrapur and Rangeilunda) of Ganjam district, about 7,000 women are engaged for collection of flowers, leaves and stilt roots and they prepare ropes and other household items from the roots and leaves. It has been observed that one female can prepare 12 bundles of ropes each of 12 m length and the sale rate of rope is about Rs.10/- per metre. The ropes are sent to the markets of Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Chennai (Tamil Nadu) for sale. The profit can also be increased by incorporating some inter-crops like Casuarina, coconut, Agasti and medicinal crops like Patchouli etc. Further, kewda can be taken on the sand dunes and waste saline land of the coastal lines, where no other crops can be grown profitably. Hence, kewda needs better attention for its extensive cultivation with a foresight on the perfume industry.

The world trade in flavour and fragrances in 1987 was US $ 7,000 million and at present, it is estimated at more than $ 10,000 million annually. In 1975, perfume was used by one woman in ten, but today it is used by eight out of ten women; even reticent Japanese women are adopting the habit (Anonymous, 1995 c). The average annual industry growth rate in perfumes of India is valued at about US $ 20 million with an annual growth rate of 12% (Murty, 1993),while the UK market is Rs. 2000 crores and the US market supersedes it by Rs. 4000 crores (Walia, 1997). However, the domestic luxury perfume market is estimated to grow at a rate of 20-25 % (Biswas, 2012). Besides domestic market, India earns a lot of foreign exchange from the export of total essential oils and perfumes and is fast growing as it is showed from the trends in export earnings of Rs. 11.1 corers in 1982-83 rose to 4-fold in 1986-87 of Rs. 41.1 crores (CHEMEXCIL, 1988). According to a market survey report, Ahmed (1999) reported that the daily turn over of the attar market in India is more than 50 crores.

Middle East countries continue to be the big buyers of our traditional perfumes. Kewda flavour which is used in pan masala and tobacco is a familiar one in this part of the world. Kewda essence, being one of the few flavouring oils, has a good scope for export to other developed countries where the food flavouring industry is well developed. India is the leading producer of kewda perfumes in the world and the market for kewda perfumes is fast expanding specifically in the Arab countries. India exported the kewda water of Rs. 266.2 lakhs in 1986-87 which rose to Rs. 276.4 lakhs in 1987-88 (CHEMEXCIL, 1990). Anonymous (2007) reported that about 140 distilleries (bhattis), both local and outsider, earn about Rs.1.3 crore by way of extraction charges and annually they extract 332 kgs of kewda oil (Rs.8.3 crore), 7823 kgs of kewda attar (Rs.15.65 crores) and 150 MTs of kewda water (Rs.4.47 crore), the total coming to around Rs.28 crore. For extracting attar , the extractors use about Rs. 8 crore worth of sandal wood oil procured mainly from other states, while Rs.18 crore goes to the plantation owners as flower cost and to the flower collectors.

French author Jean Giono once remarked, “The God creates the Odours, but the men manufacture the perfumes”. In today’s world, fragrances play bigger role than just being associated with a tiny bottle of liquid. It now serves the larger purpose of linking itself with anything you can imagine, from soaps to your favourite sweater knitted by your grandmother (Biswas, 2012). In the modern day, these products find their applications in items for personal sophistication to culinary delights and beverages, to a host of industrial products (Dev, 1993). India, a country known for its vast range of fragrant flowers and herbs, has used extracts from such raw material to produce incense sticks, medicines, body massage oils and sweet savouries.

The word ‘perfume’ is derived from the Latin term ‘perfumen’, meaning ‘through smoke’. Perfume is a fragrant liquid mainly distilled from natural oils, aromatic chemicals and resinoids; cologne is a lightly scented liquid used to cool the skin and deodorant contains chemicals to counter offensive body odour. Perfume is basically used by women, cologne by men and deodorant by both (Saha and Sareen, 1997). Throughout antiquity there was a continuous demand for incense, to mark the rites of scenting passage from birth to the grave, for the daily rituals of incensing rooms, linen and clothing. The South Asian synonym for perfume, ‘attar’, on the other hand, is derived from the Arabic word ‘aettr’ meaning ‘fat’ or ‘extract’. Almost all attars are basically aromatic oils extracted from flowers, plants and herbs through steam distillation. Some fragile flowers and oils that can not stand the heat of distillation are, however, crushed and the oil expelled by mechanical force (Mahmud, 1992).

Kewda plants are hardly attacked by the insect pests and diseases. However, a few fungal and bacterial diseases are found to reduce the yield of flowers significantly. Some important insect pests and diseases of this plant with their nature of damage and suggested control measures are discussed here as reported by Jagadev et al. (2001).

Pests

1. Bag worm

During the dry season, leaves are found to be attacked by bag worm (Manatha albipes; Fam. Psychidae; order- Lepidoptera) (Plate 36). The larva, a foliage feeder, feeds on the chlorophyll and veins of leaves leaving the mid-rib resulting in perforation of leaves. In case of heavy infestation, the leaves become dry. Extensive damage arrests the vegetative growth resulting in significant reduction of flowering. Thus, the insect is considered to be of economic importance, but till date neither the extent of economic loss caused to the crop nor its control measures have been worked out.

The volatile oil in the flower determines the odour and flavour of kewda and it has been of particular fascination to the chemists. There are only a few reports on the chemical composition of kewda essential oil (rooh or otto) Dhingra et al. (1954) distilled the kewda flowers collected from five places of Ganjam (Odisha) and Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh) districts. He found the oil yield to vary from 0.015 to 0.031% and the compounds identified were methyl ether of β- phenyl ethyl alcohol (65.97%), d-linalool (18.70%), dipentene (8.31%), phenyl ethyl acetate (3.48%) and citral (1.82%). The oil was of light to golden yellow in colour having the following physico-chemical properties viz., specific gravity (d20o) 0.932-0.958; refractive index (n20o) 1.485-1.491; optical rotation ([α]D) + 1.350 to + 2.080; acid value 1.4 – 6.7; ester value 15.9 – 40.9 and soluble in equal volume of 80 % alcohol (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Sadgopal (1959) also reported the major constituent of oil as methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (65 – 80%) and minor constituents as dipentene, α-linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, citral and some terpene esters.

According to Chandra (1985), the oil contained dipentene (6.0%), d -linalool (19.0%), phenyl ethyl acetate (4.6%), citral (1.8%), caproic acid (0.5%) and stearoptene (0.2%) besides the major constituent methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (67.0%).

Kewda plant occurs wild in the entire coastal belt of Odisha , but abundant in Chhatrapur and Keluapalli areas of Ganjam district. There were about 3-4 lakhs trees of kewda in Ganjam district (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Main season of flowering starts from July-August and lasts for 2-3 months and a few flowers also come during November-December and March-May (Haines, 1961). Averagely, a plant produces 15-20 flowers per season depending on branching of the tree (Plate 32). A fully matured tree bears 30-40 spadices in a year (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Flowering is also dependant on rainfall, being better in years of high rainfall. Size of flower is bigger during rainy season. The spadices take a fortnight to mature, depending upon the weather condition. Ripe spadices, creamy in colour, give higher yield of perfume and of better quality than immature ones (Plate 33). The kewda flower of Ganjam district is also registered under the geographical indications (GI) of goods (Registration and Protection) act (Panigrahy, 2019).

In practice, flowers are collected from wild plantations. Recently kewda has emerged as one of the important commercial commodities. A systematic cultivation practice is essential to develop a successful plantation and to increase the productivity.

Planting

Kewda suckers or crowns are generally planted during June-July. i.e. in the beginning of the monsoon, when the soil is not too wet. Planting in wet soil delayd the root formation and reduces the success level. Just after the first shower of rain or during the summer shower close to monsoon, kewda is planted.

In a full grown plant, stilt roots originate at a few feet above the ground to render a support for the huge canopy of the plant. Each part of the stem is capable enough for development of root initials, but it is retarded once the stem became old and leafless. The root initials develop at the terminal portion, where more leaves cluster, but they do not grow. Hence, the stem cuttings collected from the flowering or non-flowering shoots bear the rudimentary roots and when planted, they establish quickly.

In practice, the cuttings are collected and scattered on the ground for two to three days. Before planting, a few leaves closed to the base of the cuttings are removed to expose the root development sites. The cuttings are planted in trenches of 45 cm depth horizontally or at an angle of 30^o. The new leaves appear on the growing points one month after planting.

Kewda plants are usually planted on the field bunds for fencing and subsequently used for collection of flowers. A 30 years old plant can produce a crown of 6-7 m, for which it is difficult to develop a commercial plantation in a close spacing. It has been observed in the natural plantations that the plants may be spaced at 8-10 m distance to achieve a full length of plantation life. It is, therefore, suggested by the authors to follow a paired row method of planting maintaining a spacing of 4 m between plants and rows of a paired row and 6 m between two paired rows; which provides all facilities for plant growth upto 10-12 years and then pruning of a few branches are required. Hence, a plant population of 500 plants in the field and 150-200 plants on field bunds are maintained in a land of one hectare.

Kewda is exclusively propagated through ground suckers and leaf bearing terminal cuttings. In kewda growing areas, predominantly the terminal shoot cuttings are used in commercial plantations. However, the seeds are also capable to germinate and give rise to plants, but it is not in practice due to hard mesocarp and seed coat (Bailey, 1950, Deshaprabhu, 1966, Mott, 1975, Maharana and Jagadev, 1993).

Seed propagation

In kewda, the flowers develop into berries, which fuse to form a multiple fruit. The receptacle and bracts are included in the fruit. The seeds are deep seated and very difficult to extract, hence seeds are sown along with the fibrous drupes. Each drupe contains 2-9 seeds. Seeds collected from ripe fruits are sown during spring. The seeds normally, take about 3 months for germination due to the hard seed coat and impervious fibrous covering. Experimentally, it was observed that one hour sulphuric acid scarification treatment of the drupes reduced the germination period by about one month increasing the germination percentage as compared to direct sowing, however, scarification for more than one hour was deterimental (Table 14) (Maharana and Jagadev, 1993). Bailey (1950) reported that seed soaking in tepid water for 24 hours would aid the germination. The seed propagated plants (Plate-27) take about 2-3 years more for flowering as compared to vegetatively propagated plants.

Soil

Soil has a pronounceed effect on the plant growth and productivity in kewda. Well drained sandy-loam soil with adequate supply of moisture is best suited for its vigorous growth and flower production. Thickly distributed profitableKewda plantations with normal flowering are found in the lateritic belts with deposits of silty loam soil and adequate moisture supply. In heavy clay soil with inadequate moisture supply, the plants grow vegetatively with poor flowering. At places close to the Bay of Bengal like Rangiagarh, Kujang, Paradeep of Jagatsinghpur district, where a silt-loam soil deposit is found over the clay zone, the dense plantations of kewda with free flowering ability are noticed. But surprisingly, the female plants are more at few places close to the Paradeep port, which may be due to seed propagation by drifting of ripe fruits from the uplands; while in Ganjam district, the farmers are used to plant the selected male plants in their field resulting in high flower production.

The tentative age of the natural plantations is estimated from the rates of leaf production, stem and branch growth (5-50 cm / year) and development of branching pattern (primary and secondary) in conjuction with the interactions made with the local farmers of kewda (Fig. 9). The plants of different age groups (1 to 5 years) are observed for growth characters and flower production at Tulu of Ganjam and Konark of Puri districts under farmers’ field condition and it is observed that the initiation of flowers started at 5 years of age and the rate of flower production was 1.7 to 2.2 per plant (Table 9).