eChapters

1) Botrytis Gray Mould
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Appearance of a gray, fuzzy mold leaves, stems and on flowers of or plants. Also called, “gray mold”.
• Spotting or blight on leaf and flower stem lesions, and dieback.
• Flower parts become necrotic and die(Fig-1).
Etiology
Domain : Eukaryota
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Ascomycota
Class : Leotiomycetes
Order : Helotiales
Family : Sclerotiniaceae
 

Bud caterpillars : Helicoverpa armigera : Noctuidae

Eggs are laid singly on young buds.  Larvae feed on developing flowers by damaging florets. They can also eat the leaves.

Leaf webber : Phycita sp. : Phycitidae

Larvae of Phycita sp. feed on heads of buds and flowers.

25.1 Introduction

The method of selection in which a gene/QTL (Quantitative Trait Locus) is selected on the basis of the genotype of the molecular marker (also called DNA marker) linked to this gene/QTL is known as marker-assisted selection (also called marker-aided selection). The idea of marker-assisted selection (MAS) was first advocated by Tanksley (1983). MAS can be used in combination with the conventional breeding methods or novel breeding schemes could be devised to take full advantage of the marker data. MAS has been widely used for introgression of the desired genes and QTLs using backcross programmes.

25.2 Marker-Assisted Backcrossing (MABC)

The backcross programme based on molecular marker is usually called marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC). MABC has three activities: (a) foreground selection, (b) background selection and (c) recombinant selection.

25.2.1 Foreground Selection

The use of molecular marker to select the gene/QTL being introgressed is known as foreground selection. The objective of foreground selection is to select the target gene, i.e., the gene being introgressed, without phenotypic evaluation for the trait governed by the target gene. Foreground selection for a gene/QTL will be highly desirable in a variety of situation, some of which are listed below:

ABSTRACT

In last twenty years, molecular biology has revolutionized conventional plant breeding techniques in many areas. The use of molecular markers in conventional breeding techniques has also improved the accuracy of selection and allowed breeders to produce varieties with combined traits that were difficult before the advent of DNA technology. Among vegetables, onion (Allium cepa L.) is the most important cash crop of India. Onion productivity in India is much lower (11.38 tones / ha.) compared to other countries (44.1 tones / ha. in Japan). Purple blotch disease (PBD) caused by Alternaria porri (Ellis) Ciferri decreases the yields by up to 50 percent. Genetically resistant onion varieties are the most economical, simple and eco-friendly mode of disease management. The advent of mo- lecular markers provided the opportunity to understand the genetic resistance more pre- cisely. In this paper we present our successful efforts in developing PCR based markers linked to purple blotch disease resistance, so that such markers can be easily integrated into PBD resistance breeding program in onion. Onion germplasm was screened for PBD resistance. Line PBR 287 was identified as a good source of resistance and the genetics of inheritance of resistance in this line was worked out. The protocols for isolating good quality DNA and PCR amplification conditions were standardized. 37 polymorphic mark- ers were identified between resistant and susceptible parents. Crosses were made between resistant and susceptible parents. Parents, F₂ and individual F₂ progenies were subjected for analysis of genetics of resistance and RAPD marker analysis. F₂ individuals segregated in 3:1 ratio for resistance. DNA from resistant and susceptible F₂ individuals was pooled separately for Bulked Segregant Analysis (BSA). BSA identified one RAPD marker of 900bp being linked to resistance. Further Chi-square test for detecting the deviation of segregation of this 900bp marker confirmed segregation with classical Mendalian ratio 3:1 for a monogenic trait. Identified marker is of great practical utility to the plant breeders to screen large number of populations for purple blotch disease resistance at the early stages of the crop even in absence of the pathogen.

A concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds obtained from aromatic plants is referred to as essential oil. It is so-called to indicate that the oil is the fragrant essence of the plant from which it is extracted generally through various distillation methods. The economics working behind essential oils has three components. First, the cultivation of herbs and plants used to extract essential oils; second, the actual process of extraction of the oils; and, third, the marketing and actual sale of these oils. But the major emphasis is often given to the agrotechnology, since the crop yield and yield of the essential oil depends on the quality of cultivation. The cost of cultivation of herbs in the developing countries per hectare is estimated at US $ 600 to 1100. This cost mainly comprises labour cost and as such this industry is uniquely suitable only for developing nations. The revenue from essential oils after the extraction per hectare is estimated to be around US $ 2500 to US $ 6500. According to industry sources, more than 3,500 essential oils are known. Out of these, some 400 are used for commercial purposes on a regular basis. These are obtained mostly from agricultural plants, some from wild plants that may be seasonal or perennial. Oil can be extracted from any part of plants—from leaves, flowers, fruits, roots etc. Whatever the source of essential oils, they have complex compositions, containing alcohol, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, esters, ethers and turpenes in varying proportions.

Demand and Supply of Horticulture Produce

India’s horticulture production rose 30 per cent in the last five years — an impressive rise, considering growth in the preceding five years stood at about 23 per cent. India is currently producing 257.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 23 million ha.The area under horticulture grew by about 3.8% per annum but production rose by 7.6% per annum. Improvement in productivity of horticultural crops was noted by about 28% between 2001-02 and 2011-12. Of the 140 million farmers in the country, horticulture engages about 20 million and also contributes about 30 per cent of India’s agricultural GDP. Horticulture contributes 37% of total exports of Agricultural commodities. India is among the foremost countries in horticulture production, just behind China.

The world trade in flavour and fragrances in 1987 was US $ 7,000 million and at present, it is estimated at more than $ 10,000 million annually. In 1975, perfume was used by one woman in ten, but today it is used by eight out of ten women; even reticent Japanese women are adopting the habit (Anonymous, 1995 c). The average annual industry growth rate in perfumes of India is valued at about US $ 20 million with an annual growth rate of 12% (Murty, 1993),while the UK market is Rs. 2000 crores and the US market supersedes it by Rs. 4000 crores (Walia, 1997). However, the domestic luxury perfume market is estimated to grow at a rate of 20-25 % (Biswas, 2012). Besides domestic market, India earns a lot of foreign exchange from the export of total essential oils and perfumes and is fast growing as it is showed from the trends in export earnings of Rs. 11.1 corers in 1982-83 rose to 4-fold in 1986-87 of Rs. 41.1 crores (CHEMEXCIL, 1988). According to a market survey report, Ahmed (1999) reported that the daily turn over of the attar market in India is more than 50 crores.

Middle East countries continue to be the big buyers of our traditional perfumes. Kewda flavour which is used in pan masala and tobacco is a familiar one in this part of the world. Kewda essence, being one of the few flavouring oils, has a good scope for export to other developed countries where the food flavouring industry is well developed. India is the leading producer of kewda perfumes in the world and the market for kewda perfumes is fast expanding specifically in the Arab countries. India exported the kewda water of Rs. 266.2 lakhs in 1986-87 which rose to Rs. 276.4 lakhs in 1987-88 (CHEMEXCIL, 1990). Anonymous (2007) reported that about 140 distilleries (bhattis), both local and outsider, earn about Rs.1.3 crore by way of extraction charges and annually they extract 332 kgs of kewda oil (Rs.8.3 crore), 7823 kgs of kewda attar (Rs.15.65 crores) and 150 MTs of kewda water (Rs.4.47 crore), the total coming to around Rs.28 crore. For extracting attar , the extractors use about Rs. 8 crore worth of sandal wood oil procured mainly from other states, while Rs.18 crore goes to the plantation owners as flower cost and to the flower collectors.

Raw cashew nuts are a seasonal commodity and the trading season is from March to May. Growers usually supply the primary or village markets where small traders collect and supply the urban markets. The cashew trade is seldom handled by exclusive traders. Usually, those traders who collect other plantation products also trade in cashew. Due to the highly competitive nature of the cashew trade, growers have few marketing problems. When large quantities are collected by middlemen, the processors enter the marketing chain and make wholesale purchases. Grades and standards for cashew are yet to be introduced in India. Quality is generally determined by appearance and cutting tests that traders employ prior to purchase. The raw cashew nut market involves a large amount of capital where nearly 80 per cent of the produce is transacted within a period of 35 days. The current value of Indian production is estimated at around Rs. 10,000 million. This capital is made available by industry for procurement and processing operations.

There are no growers’ cooperatives or organizations for cashew marketing. In Kerala, however, the government has been involved in the procurement process and supply to large-scale processors. This adversely affected the cashew trade and has now been replaced by a free market policy.

In addition to the local production of nearly 7 lakh tonnes, India also imports a considerable quantity of raw nuts from several African and South-east Asian countries to satisfy the national processing capacity of about 12-14 lakh tonnes established in the country.

Marmalade: Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which peels of the fruits is in suspended forms. This product is generally prepared from citrus fruit like orange and lemon. The citrus marmalade can be classified into jelly marmalade and jam marmalade. 1 kg pectin extract required 750g sugar and 62g shredded peel.

       Crop                Highest producer state
    301.     Arecanut     (a) Assam
    302.     Cashew nut     (b) Kerala
    303.     Rubber     (c) Andhra Pradesh 
    304.     Tea     (d) Karnataka

Strategic partnerships and productive outreach play a crucial role for new technologies to successfully reach the market, drive growth, and strengthen a country’s global competitiveness, Outreach programs have various benefits, ranging from technology transfer awareness, communication of stakeholders, industry, government, to academy partnership promotions. These efforts help in establishing connections, communicating opportunities, and encouraging active engagement from key stakeholders. Outreach activities can be performed under two broad categories:
1. Written communication includes all communication which can be viewed, shared, or made accessible for a set of people in a passive manner. This includes reports, newsletters, guidance, and online content which provide insights of worth for stakeholders.
2. Human outreach includes all direct communication like c face-to-face or verbal form communication it included conferences, conventions, workshops, seminars and personal communication with industry leaders.
The type of outreach creates stronger, more personal connections. An effective outreach strategy usually combines both human and written outreach efforts. By following this strategy TTOs can expand and strengthen partnerships, and make it easier for research-led innovations to get transition from lab to market more effectively. This chapter explores key outreach models, strategic networking approaches, and proven practices for building impactful partnerships in technology transfer.

3.1. Maturity

• During process of maturation, fruit receives regular supply of food material from plant.

• When mature, abscission or corky layer forms at stern end stops inflow.

• Afterwards, fruit depends on own reserves, carbohydrates dehydrated and sugars accumulate until sugar acid ratio form.

• In addition, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop.

• Stage of maturity at the time of picking influence storage life and quality of fruit

• Fruits harvested over mature or full ripe are easily susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and storage life reduction.

• Necessary to pick up fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant transportation and maximum storage life.

• Principles of harvest maturity

? Harvested commodity should have its peak acceptable quality when it reaches the consumer.

? Produce should develop an acceptable flavour or appearance.

? Produce should have optimum size and shape required by the market.

1. MATURITY INDICES

Maturity indices (right time of harvesting) are quality factors that give clues as to when a product should be harvested to allow marketing flexibility and ensure the attainment of minimum acceptable quality to the user. It also refers to the set of criteria used to determine the stage of maturity for harvesting the horticultural crops. Commodities harvested either pre-mature or too late are more susceptible to postharvest physiological disorders, diseases and have poor shelf life than harvested at right stage of maturity. The pickers/ handlers are trained in methods of identifying produce that is ready for harvest. However, optimum harvesting stages depends upon type of produce and their final use. Horticultural crops may be harvested at two main maturity levels i.e., physiological maturity and commercial or horticultural maturity. Therefore, the proper stage/maturity indices for harvesting of all horticultural crops should be identified for their implementation during harvesting. Horticultural maturity in relation to developmental stages of the plants is depicted in Fig 3.1.

1. MATURITY INDICES
Maturity indices (right time of harvesting) are quality factors that give clues as to when a product should be harvested to allow marketing flexibility and ensure the attainment of minimum acceptable quality to the user. It also refers to the set of criteria used to determine the stage of maturity for harvesting the horticultural crops. Commodities harvested either pre-mature or too late are more susceptible to postharvest physiological disorders, diseases and have poor shelf life than harvested at right stage of maturity. The pickers/ handlers are trained in methods of identifying produce that is ready for harvest. However, optimum harvesting stages depends upon type of produce and their final use. Horticultural crops may be harvested at two main maturity levels i.e., physiological maturity and commercial or horticultural maturity. Therefore, the proper stage/maturity indices for harvesting of all horticultural crops should be identified for their implementation during harvesting. Horticultural maturity in relation to developmental stages of the plants is depicted in Fig 3.1.
Maturity indices are different for different horticultural crops and are employed to:
1. Ensure sensory quality (flavour, colour, aroma, and texture) and nutritional quality: Harvesting horticultural produce too early (under-developed or immature produce) will result

The horticultural produce includes fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops and spices. However, fruits and vegetables are the most consumed and important commodity among them. Morphologically and physiologically, the fruits and vegetables are highly variable and may come from a root, stem, leaf, immature or fully mature and ripe fruits. They have variable shelf life and require different suitable conditions during marketing. All fresh horticultural crops are high in water content and are subjected to desiccation (wilting, shrivelling) and to mechanical injury. Various authorities have estimated that 20-30% of fresh horticultural produce is lost after harvest and these losses can assume considerable economic and social importance.

Maturity

It is the state of reaching a stage of full or advanced development of tissue of fruits and vegetables, after which it will ripen normally. During the process of maturation, the fruit receives a regular supply of food material from the plant and at maturity, the abscission or corky layer formed at the stem end stops this inflow. Afterwards, the fruit depend on its own reserves, and carbohydrates are dehydrated and sugars start accumulating until the sugar acid ratio formation. In addition to this, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop. It has been determined that the stage of maturity at the time of picking influence the storage life and quality of fruit, when picked immature like mango develop white patches or air pockets during ripening, thus lacks in in normal brix acid ratio or sugar acid ratio, taste and flavour. On the other hand, if the fruits are harvested over mature or full ripe, then they are easily susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and their storage life is considerably reduced. Such fruits continue to show numerous problems during handling, storage and transportation. Therefore, it is necessary or essential to pick up the fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant transportation and to obtain maximum storage life.

Horticulture crops contribute significantly for the total agricultural production and productivity. World production of fruits accounted for the total volume of 933 million tonnes (FAO, 2023). India being second largest producer for majority of fruit commodities had a production total reaching 108.34 million tonnes in 2022-2023 from an area of 7.15 million hectares. It accounts for 33 per cent to the agriculture GVA (Gross Value Added) and plays an important role in the Indian economy. India is second largest producer of majority of fruits and vegetables. Diverse agro-climatic zones in the country make it possible to grow almost all varieties of fruits in India. Produced fruits are used for domestic consumption, processing and export purposes. During 2022 23, fresh fruits exports was valued at 6219.46 crores (APEDA, 2023). The fruits grown in India includes domestic fruits and nuts along with the exotic fruits contributing for the food and nutritional security. The growth of these economically important fruits provides scope for maintaining rich germplasm, enhance bio-diversity and maintain ecological balance.

Objectives

1. To study the maturity indices of various spices and condiments.
2. To study the harvesting time and yield of various spices and condiments.

Maturity: A stage of attainment of final state of biological function beyond which growth and development ceases.

Maturity indices: An indication of appropriate stage of harvesting of the produce.

Harvesting: It is deliberate action to separate the plant product from its source of attachment.

Why harvesting at right stage for spices and condiments?

1. To avoid loss of flavour and volatile oils
2. Reduction in yield due to shattering
3. To get the higher yield
4. Recovery of more essential oil
5. Chances of attack of mycotoxigenic and storage pest

Maturity can be defined as the attainment of a particular size or stage after which ripening takes place. It is also called physiological maturity. However,horticultural maturity is defined as the stage of development, when a plant or plant part possesses the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose. Mango, tomato, cucumbers, lettuce, peppers, etc. are harvested at various stages depending on the objective of disposal (horticultural maturity) prior to reaching physiological maturity, or completion of growth phase.

Maturity indices are the most important for deciding the stage of harvesting and to reduce post-harvest losses. The post harvest life of fruits are mainly controlled by maturity. Maturity signs are also called maturity standards or maturity indices. Maturity signs help in judging maturity of fruits and vegetables. There are many methods to determine maturity. The most common is the size and shape of fruit, change in colour, softening of tissues (fig, sapota), ease of detachment from the stalk (sapota, annona), shriveling of fruit stalk (watermelon), drying of nearest tendril (watermelon), days from blooming to picking maturity, sound by tapping jack and watermelon, when ripe produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe etc.

Maturity of Cashewnut

Cashew fruit has two parts namely cashew nut (actual fruit) and cashew apple (pseudo fruit). Development of these is not parallel. Cashew nut develops first and the pseudo fruit develops later. It takes 60 days for both the nut and the pseudo fruit to develop completely since anthesis. Development of cashew apple and nut has been studied by number of workers in different cashew varieties (Rao et al., 1962; Augustin and Unnithan, 1981; Mohan Kumar et. al., 1984; Antarkar and Joshi, 1987). According to the report, specific gravity could be considered as physical index of maturity of nut in cashew varieties of V-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (Antarkar and Joshi, 1987; Mohan Kumar et al., 1984). In Thailand, the nut reached maximum size in 4 weeks after fruit set, hardened in the subsequent week and declined in size by 10 per cent at harvest (Sumrit Feungehan et al., 1989). Augustin and Unnithan (1981) have reported that the growth of nut is faster during early stage of development than that of fruit. All these reports indicate that the cashew nut develops earlier than cashew apple. Changes in the composition of cashew nut and apple during development have been looked into by various workers. Hariharan et al. (1985) have reported decrease in amino acid content in kernel with increased maturity. Cashew kernel lipid, free amino acids and CNSL have been shown to increase with increased maturity. Similarly, cashew kernel phenols have been shown to decrease with maturity. Changes in the kernel sugars and starch were not uniform (Anon., 1998).

Introduction

Measurement of pH of a solution and preparation of different types/strength of buffers are common practices in a laboratory, particularly in the Biochemistry and Molecular Biology laboratories. Therefore, in this chapter you will be acquainted with the procedures of measuring pH of a solution as well as preparation of some of the commonly used buffers in a laboratory.

Potential or Power of Hydrogen Ion (pH)

Measurement of pH of a solution is measuring the molar concentration of hydrogen ion [H+] in the solution, which is an indication of the acidity or basicity of the solution. The symbol pH stands for “power of hydrogen” and numerical value for pH is just the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions [H+]. The ionic product of water (Kw ) is the basis for the pH scale. The total hydrogen ion concentration from all the sources and it can be experimentally measured.

The pH scale designates the concentration of H+ (and thus of OH−) in an aqueous solution, which ranges between 1.0 M H+ and 1.0 M OH−. The term pH is defined by the expression

Thus, the ionic product of water makes it possible to calculate the concentration of H+, with given concentration of OH−, and vice versa. The value of 7 for pH of a neutral solution is not an arbitrarily chosen figure; it is derived from the absolute value of the ionic product of water. A solution having pH greater than 7 is basic, and the concentration of OH− is greater than that of H+. A solution having a pH less than 7 is acidic.

ABSTRACT

The antagonistic organisms are known to bring out action on the pathogen by various mechanisms. Based on in vitro screening of epiphytic microbes from cocoa pod surface against Phytophthora palmivora, the incitant of pod rot of cocoa, a promising isolate of Trichoderma viride and two isolates of Pseudomonas fluorescens were selected. The mechanisms of antagonistic action of these selected epiphytic antagonists against P. palmivora were studied in comparison with the standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens. The selected epiphytic fungal antagonist T. viride and standard culture of T. harzianum were found to be efficient parasites of P. palmivora. The hyphae of the pathogen were seen tightly held by coiling with hyphae of the fungal antagonists. The hyphae of the antagonists penetrated the host hyphae at several points and grew to its inner cavity. The fungal antagonists also caused disintegration of the pathogen hyphae, besides free intermingling, which resulted in malformation of host hyphae. The ability of the two epiphytic P. fluorescens isolates and standard culture of P. fluorescens in producing HCN and siderophores was assessed. It was found that these isolates produced HCN and siderophores in appreciable levels thereby suppressing the P. palmivora. Though, more than one mechanism may operate in suppressing the pathogen, the relative importance of a particular mechanism may vary with different conditions, which needed to be further investigated.

Biofertilizers improve the plant growth due to changes in the microbial community of rhizosphere by production of several substances. Normally, biofertilizers promote plant growth either by facilitating nutrient absorption or by secretion of plant hormones. Biofertilizers also cause inhibitory effects by acting as biocontrol agents on various pathogens so that the growth of plant is enhanced. The mode of action could be either direct or indirect methods

Labour is one of the biggest input costs for vegetable growers. Vegetable farming is labor intensive and time consuming. Frequently, it is associated with low yield and poor quality production. The constraints are high labor requirements for land clearing, ploughing, bed forming, mulch laying, seeding, transplanting, harvesting and transporting. Mechanization is interjection of improved tools, implements, machines and other equipments between man and materials (soil, water, environment, seed, fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators, irrigation water, agricultural produce and by-products such as fruits, vegetables, and seeds, etc.)

Horticultural medicinal plants

Throughout recorded history, people have held medicinal plants in high regard due to the many health benefits they provide. Natural cures abound among these botanical marvels, and they may alleviate a wide range of health problems. The wide variety of bioactive substances found in them has been used to create pharmaceutical medications and alternative treatments, suggesting that they may have curative properties. Medicinal plants, such as aloe vera and turmeric, offer a wide range of uses, including pain relief, the treatment of chronic diseases, and general health improvement. A newfound respect for traditional herbal medicine’s knowledge and the need of preserving these priceless resources has emerged in recent years, as contemporary medicine investigates the plants’ unrealized potential.

Introduction
India, renowned for its rich biodiversity and ancient tradition of Ayurveda, is home to an astonishing array of medicinal and aromatic plants. These plants, harboring bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, glycosides, terpenes, and flavonoids, have been harnessed for centuries to prevent, diagnose, and treat various health ailments. Medicinal plants, utilizing parts like leaves, roots, stems, or seeds, offer natural remedies for wellness. Meanwhile, aromatic plants, rich in fragrant volatile oils, are the cornerstone of essential oils, aromatherapy, and perfumery. A Legacy of Healing: History of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Cultivation in India

Ancient India (3000 BCE - 500 CE)
Ayurveda's origins: Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine,
emerged around 3000 BCE, emphasizing the use of medicinal plants.
Vedic period (1500 BCE - 500 BCE)
• Ayurvedic texts like the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda documented medicinal plant uses.
• Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita (400 BCE - 200 CE): These seminal texts systematically described medicinal plant properties and uses.

Medicinal plants are non-food non-plantation crops.

These are rich in secondary metabolites viz. alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoides and steroids, etc.

Union government of India has started a project on 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library' under which it is documenting all Ayurvedic formulations in a digital form to avert patent threats from companies in the developed world

1. Introduction

There are a large number of indigenous rice varieties in India, which are still grown by the tribal people and small farmers of the remote areas where the modern agricultural practices, sufficient foods as well as healthcare systems are a dream. Nature has provided them some alternative ways. They have different indigenous rice varieties with its nutritional and medicinal values. Until recently, rice was considered only a starchy food and a source of carbohydrates and some amount of protein. Rice protein, though small in amount, is of high nutritional value (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001). It has extensive curative properties known from the ancient days. In fact, specific rice varieties with medicinal properties were cultivated and used in the treatment of some ailments in different counties of South East Asia.

During recent times, both at national level and international levels, the land races are being preserved in the gene banks. The scientists said that they were also checking these land races for some such characteristics which were not available in the existing varieties so as to incorporate the same in the present varieties (Sultan and Subba Rao, 2013). Traditional varieties are experiencing an increasing trend among consumers, due to their incredible health benefits for example the traditional varieties possess higher amount of glutamic acid, fiber and vitamins. Some people also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body, improves vocal clarity, eyesight, fertility and mitigating rashes (Caius, 1999).

ABSTRACT

Artemisia annua L. is known for the content of anti-malarial drug, artemisinin. It is widely distributed in subtropical, temperate and subtropical zones worldwide and traditionally used for the treatment of various ailments. Artemisinin has been the frontline treatment since the late 1990s and saved countless lives, especially among the world’s poorest children. The major chemical constituents of Artemisia annua L. are sesquiterpenoids and some phenolics. The essential oil of Artemisia contains artemisia ketone, camphor, caryophyllene oxide, 1,8- cineole and -pinene, and these essential oils constituents are known for their medicinal properties.Artemisinin was discovered in 1971 bya Chinese Medicinal Chemist Youyou Tu (Nobel Prize in 2015). As the demand for artemisinin remains high worldwide, exploring the chemical and the genetic variation especially knowledge, about its mechanisms for high-yielding would be more important. The plant extract is also known for other biological activities such as anti- hypertensive, anti-microbial, immuniosuppresive, and antiparasitic activities. To increase the production of artemisinin and to investigate the effect of climate change on artemisinin content will be the major research area in future from Artemisia genus. Exploring the alternative resources such as microbial production and semisynthetic approaches from other easily available natural molecules would be of high demand. Some other molecules from Artemisia should also be focused for the future development of man kind and in drug discovery science. An overview of present status of medicinal applications, phytochemistry, and future perspectives for the research possibilities on the active ingredient Artemisinin from A. annua is discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

During the last decade, considerable attention has been focused on the involvement of oxygen free radical (OFR) in various diseases. Molecular oxygen, while providing an efficient energy from ingested food, results in free radical and peroxide by-products, which have high intrinsic toxicity. Numerous physiological processes in living organisms occasionally produce free radicals, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as by-products. Their broad ranges of effects in biological systems have drawn the attention of many experimental works. ROS have been implicated in the pathophysiology of several clinical disorders, including ischemia, reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, rheumatoid arthritis, neurodegenerative, atherosclerosis, acute hypertension, hemorrhagic shock and diabetes mellitus (Hemnani and Parihar, 1998).

Oxidative stress occurs in a cell or tissue when the concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated exceeds the antioxidant capability of the cell (Simic and Jovanovic, 1986). Although humans and other organisms possess antioxidant defense and repair systems to protect against oxidative damage, these systems are insufficient under certain conditions to prevent the damage totally (Chang and Miles, 1982). Hence, the oxygen free radicals mediated damage to protein, DNA and other biomolecules accumulates during the lifetime of organisms. Many synthetic antioxidant components exhibited toxic or mutagenic effects that have directed the attention to the naturally occurring antioxidants in recent years. A multitude of natural antioxidants have already been isolated from different plant materials such as oilseeds, cereal crops, vegetables, fruits, leaves, roots, spices and herbs (Ramarathnam et al., 1995).

ABSTRACT

Our country is well known for developing into rich and ancient traditional system of medicines based on plants. For centuries, these ancient cultures and professional practicing on traditional system viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha could remain in house hold and pass through generations to generation. India is being a developing country, of late uses bioactive natural products (secondary metabolites) using in vitro culture technology of the medicinal plant species. Recently, commercial utilization of these compounds using modern techniques is in good progress. The developed western affluent world has to now depend on these compounds mostly in drug and pharmaceutical industry in recent years. Orchids as medicinal herbs, details on plant medicinal potentialities, traditional medicinal systems viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha have been described.

Introduction

The incidence of diabetes mellitus is increasing all over the world and is becoming a problem of significant importance. Diabetes mellitus is a disease of CHO metabolism and WHO has declared India as the diabetic capital of the world. Globally diabetes affects 246 million people, which is about 6% of the total adult population. It is the fourth leading cause of death by disease and every 10 seconds, a person dies from diabetes related causes in the world.

The growing number of diabetic patients and the current and probable future need for health care constraints will mean that high quality diabetic care will become increasingly difficult to be delivered in the future. This requires identification & implementation of cost effective treatment measures that will improve diabetes care in the long term, decrease the associated morbidity and reduce the high direct and indirect costs of its management. This can be possible by incorporation of cost effective and efficient medicinal plants in the management of diabetes. Toxicity and side effects of modern system of medicine have highlighted the importance and relevance of traditional medicinal plants. India has about 45,000 plant species and several thousands have been claimed to possess medicinal properties. Among Indian traditional medicinal plants several potential anti-diabetic plants and herbs are being used as part of our diet since prehistoric time.

In India, medicinal plants have been used as natural medicine since the days of Vedic glory. Historically, in ‘Atharva-Veda’ (about 200 B.C.) description of medicinal plants was made under a separate chapter ‘Ayurveda’. The medicinal values of plants have been tested by trial and error method for a long time by different workers and opened great opportunities for scientific investigations of herbal medicines for cure of diabetes and its complications.

Medicinal plants used to treat hyperglycemic conditions are of considerable interest for ethno-botanical community as they are recognized to contain valuable medicinal properties in different parts of the plant and a number of plants have shown varying degree of hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic activity. The active principles of many plant species are isolated for direct use as drugs, lead compounds or pharmacological agents. Traditional plant medicines or herbal formulations might offer a natural key to unlock diabetic complications if utilized with care.

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, the rural communities of Trivandrum have been preserving small tracts of virgin forests or small groves since time immemorial due to strong religious beliefs anointed with the groves. These forest patches are biodiversity rich communities and a large number of medicinal plants of the region are confined to these groves only. The indigenous people use the plants for medicinal as well as religious purposes. Over the years, such forests have been attributed as a treasure trove of threatened species and dispensary of medicinal plants. During the investigation, 132 medicinal plants belonging to 63 families and 119 genera were recorded from 25 miniature sacred forests of Trivandrum district. This study was based on medicinal plants used in traditional health care by local and indigenous people. About 80% local people use different parts of plants for various ailments. The present finding revealed that most of the plants are used for skin diseases, cold, cough and fever, etc. Leaves are predominantly used than the other plant parts. Important families within the groves were Apocynaceae, Papilionaceae, Urticaceae, Combretaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Presence of a large number of monospecific families indicates immediate need of a conservation measure to secure sustainable utilization of medicinal plants of sacred groves of Trivandrum district.

Description of important medicinal plants

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is one of the most significant trees in tropical and subtropical homegardens and perhaps the most widespread and useful tree in the important genus Artocarpus. Jackfruit belongs to the family Moraceae. The word “jackfruit” comes from Portuguese jaca, which is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. Jack fruit native to India and seen abundant in Western Ghats (Wangchu et al.,2013). Besides India, jackfruit is commonly grown in home gardens of tropical and sub-tropical countries especially Sri Lanka; Bangladesh, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Brazil. In India, it widely distributed in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and considered to be the “Poor mans food” (Prakash et al., 2009). In Malayalam, jack fruit is called as “Chakka” while the ancient Indian language Sanskrit refers as Atibruhatphala (Baliga et al., 2011). The morphology of the tree varies with 10-30 m tall; with long tap root and dense crown producing the largest tree born fruit in the world. The fruit weight up to 50 kg, but average weigh is considered to be 10 kg, while only 30-35% of the bulb is edible. Jack fruit is considered as national fruit in Bangladesh and highly appreciated in India due to cheap and availability in summer seasons were food is scarce (Muralidharan et al., 1997). It is a monoecious tree and both male and female inflorescences are found on the same tree. The fertilization is by cross-pollination and the propagation is mostly through seeds. The complete fruit development process takes about three to seven months from the pollination, varying in different countries. Jackfruit consists of lower fleshy edible region (bulb), middle fused region (syncarp) and out spiney region (spike). When ripe the fruit get fleshy, outer spines widened and flesh get soft and yellow. Except the thorny outer bark and axis are not edible (Baliga et al., 2011). The jackfruits were classified based on their phonotypical and organoleptic characteristics with variation in bulb colour as well as shape, size, odour, flake size, flake colour and period of maturity. Two types of ecotypes are recognized, one with soft and spongy flakes or bulbs while other with firm carpels.

1. Introduction

Pummelo is considered as largest fruit among all the Citrus species from the Rutaceae family. It is also known as shaddock, papanus or chakotra. Although C. grandis (L.) Osbeck is more frequently used, however C. maxima (Burm.) Merr. is considered as correct under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Singh and Navneet, 2017). It is considered as one of the four true species (natural, non-hybrid) of Citrus. The ltypical large size, thick rind is one of the causes for slow acceptance of pummelo in international market. However, it is presently considered as important fruit due to presence of various bio-active compounds related with human health and nutrition. The word ‘pummelo’ was originally derived from the Dutch word ‘pompelmoes’. The fruit is also named as ‘Shaddock’ after a Captain Shaddock who was believed to have introduced the fruit in Barbados on an East India Company ship on its way to England in the 17^th century. It is known by different names by different communities residing in India such as chakotra (Hindi), batabi lebu or jambura (Bengali), robab tenga (Assamese), nobab (Manipuri), ser trawk (Mizo), soh myngor or soh bah (Khasi), rabab tasing (Adi), papanas (Gujarati), chakota (Kannada), kambili naranga (Malayalam), pamparapanasa (Telugu), metukki or pampalimaku (Tamil) and bampara (Marathi) [Anon, 2019]. Pummelo can be distinguished from grapefruit by its larger size fruit, thicker albedo and the bunch bearing habit of grapefruit can also be considered for distinguishing it from pummelo (Scora et al., 1982). The crop is believed to have originated from South and Southeast Asia and it is now cultivated in many tropical and semi tropical countries. The top ten world producers of pummelo and grapefruit are USA, China, Mexio, South Africa, India, Argentina, Turkey, Cuba, Brazil and Tunisia (FAOSTAT, 2010). It is also cultivated in in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Chile, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Nepal. There is no report of its commercial cultivation in India till date; rather it is mainly grown in homestate gardens across the country including UP, Punjab, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. However, maximum genetic diversity in pummelo germplasm is found in North Eastern Region, West Bengal and Bihar (Singh et al., 2015).

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in India

• Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha, Upper Gangetic Plains and in Nilgiris, ascending to altitude of 1600 m.

• North-east, North-west, Southern as well as Central India, and extends into Myanmar and China.

11.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Raw materials for production of steroidal drugs, steroid bearing solanum

• Yields a glyco alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine.

Clasping stemmed Solena or diversely leaved Melothria or creeping cucumber (Solena amplexicaulis Lam. Syn. Bryonia amplexicaulis (Lam), Melothria heterophylla (Lour), Melothria angulata Chakrav) is an indigenous cucurbit vegetable occuring in nature nearby cultivated areas on hedges or in open fields In Greek Solen means’ a tube,pipe’ refering to the nature of its flowers. The vernacular names are Bon-kundari, kudari, makal, mahakal (bengali), gometti (marati), kanduri, kuduri (bundelkhand), bankakra (champa), gometi (gujarati, anatmul, mahakal, taarali, kaduri (hindi),makirla (chattirgarh), kaage mari balli (kanarese) etc. This is a perennial vine, dioecious in nature. Tender fruits are used as salad, curry and  fried vegetable. It has significant medicinal value also.  In tribal regions of Orissa, fruits of Melothria are considered as delicacy. Visualizing the delicate nature of its fruits, it has great potential as a salad crop in  future.

1. Introduction

Membranes separation processes have gained widespread applications in food industry. High selectivity of membrane has been exploited for separating a particular component from complex liquid food mixture and for controlled release of active ingredients like preservatives or flavor compounds. Today, a number of chemical processes utilizing the unique properties of membrane have been developed for commercial application in food industry with specific advantage of low energy requirement. Membrane separation/molecular sieving is one among those food engineering principals which has found broad range of applications including concentration of heat labile compounds, recovery of solvent, downstream processing, flavor volatile recovery, deacidification, desalination, waste water treatment etc

Cabbage semilooper: Thysanoplusia orichalcea :Noctuidae

Eggs are laid singly on lower surface of leaves.  The emerging larvae feed as a scraper initially and then feed voraciously on the leaves. The larva is greenish and hence not easily noticed initially. But when patches of damage occur in the crop, examine for the larvae and remove and destroy all the larvae. Chemical control is not advisable, and spraying extracts of other aromatic plants can deter egg laying very well.

Every organ and tissue of the body is more or less affected by this powerful drug; it transforms healthy cells into inflamed and necrotic cells; decomposes the blood producing a profound anaemia. This is converted into useful life saving and life preserving service if employed homoeopathically, guided by its clear-cut symptoms. The lymphatic system is especially affected with all the membranes and glands, and internal organs, bones, etc. lesions produced by Mercury are very similar to those of syphilis. Very often indicated in the secondary stage of syphilis where there is a febrile chloroanaemia, rheumatoid pains around joints, etc. all mercury symptoms are worse at night, from warmth of bed, from damp, cold, rainy weather, worse during perspiration. It is also known as human 'thermometre'. Sensitive to heat and cold. Breath, excretions and body smell foul. Tendency to pus formation, which is thin, greenish, putrid, streaked with thin blood.

1. Introduction

Plants offer a rich source of active compounds that have been exploited as scents, flavourings, pigments, pesticides, and medicinal compounds for thousands of years. Plants are thought to utilise these metabolites as a primary strategy for adapting to and surviving in a variety of ecological niches and environmental conditions, as well as to combat biotic intrusions in their environment (Weng, 2014). The increased interest in phytomedicine and medicinal supplements, as well as the increased regulatory obligations for their safety and reputable contents of active compounds, has prompted the development of methodologies for the quality control of multi - component concretes found in plant-derived nutraceuticals. Metabolite diversity in plants is thought to have evolved over time to help plants survive in harsh environments, and it is continually changing. 

The term DNA sequencing refers to methods for determining the order of the nucleotide bases, adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine, in a molecule of DNA. In molecular terms ,the definitive understanding of a DNA molecule comes from determining its nucleotide sequence.The function of a gene can be deduced from its nucleotide sequence,for example by comparing the sequences of genes with known functions.

The first DNA sequences were obtained by academic researchers, using laborious methods based on 2 – dimensional chromatography in the early 1970s.  Following the development of dye-based sequencing methods with automated analysis, DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster.  Knowledge of DNA sequences of genes and other parts of the genome of organisms have become indispensable for basic research studying biological processes, as well as in applied field like diagnostic or forensic research.  The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery.

Collection trips were organized in a planned manner so as to cover every locality in all three seasons. Rural and remote areas which were thus far practically unexplored were surveyed more intensively. Frequency of collection trips was twice a week during first year; once a fortnight in third and once a month in the last and forth years. During the field work, observations on the habit and habitat; flower colour; fragrance; fruiting, colour of the bark and blaze in case of trees and shrubs; dominance and sociability of the collected plants were entered into rough field book. In the mean time information regarding medicinal or other uses, if any, were gathered from local inhabitants, vaidyas and haquims. Plants of small size were uprooted carefully and pressed as such. In case of larger plants, care was taken so that specimens should have flowers, fruits, leaves and stems of young and old stages. At least four specimens, for making herbarium sheets, were pressed at spot after tagging; and a tagged bundle of a few plants was taken in a polythene bag for study in laboratory.

1. Introduction

The study of systematics and genetic diversity between or within different species, populations, and individuals is a central task for many disciplines of biological sciences. Systematic studies can indicate which genomes in the plant kingdom to search, sample, and study for the answers to questions relating to the evolution of chemical and physical structures and their synthesis or ontogeny as well as questions about the kinship of the individuals. Such studies would help find new and useful genes and provide information about the phylogenetic relationships among crop species and their wild relatives. The application of molecular markers has been the most active area of research in both animal and plant systematics. The analysis of the genetic variability within and among populations of the species is crucial for understanding their future maintenance and developing improvement as well as conservation programs.

Classical phenotypic characters, such as morphological traits, are still extremely useful but they can sometimes be influenced by environmental conditions. Therefore, during the past decade, classical strategies of evaluating genetic variability such as comparative anatomy, morphology, embryology and physiology have been increasingly complemented by molecular techniques. These include the analysis of chemical constituents (e.g., plant secondary metabolites) and, most importantly, the characterization of macromolecules. The development of molecular markers, which are based on polymorphisms found in proteins or DNA, has greatly facilitated research in a variety of disciplines such as taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology, genetics, and plant breeding (Weising et al. 1995). The greater utility of molecular markers derives from following five inherent properties that distinguish them from morphological markers.

1. Introduction

The objective of algal taxonomic collections is to represent the natural population, flora and diversity in size and form. Therefore, it is important to collect the representative samples seasonally from various habitats. Collection of information about the habitats and other details are also very important. For algal sampling the first thing to consider is how to collect the specimens. The freshwater algae show an ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental condition. Under natural conditions, they usually grow in mixed communities which may include many species and genera. Field study provides information about the site, environment, season and size and shape of the living algal thallus in its natural surroundings. Many algae can be tentatively identified by their appearance, shape and colour of thallus in a particular habitat. Algal population can be sampled in a number of different ways, depending on the nature of the habitat and the location of the algae within the water body. The specimens must be prepared carefully so that important morphological characters are displayed as fully and completely for further researches.

1. Introduction

The word ‘lichen’ has a Greek origin, which was referred to the superficial growth of fungus like organism on the bark of olive trees. Theophrastus, the Father of Botany coined the term ‘lichen’ during 300 BC and introduced this group of plants to the scientific world.

Lichen is a combination of two organisms, an alga and a fungus, living together in symbiotic association. Sometimes instead of an alga a cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) may be present in the lichen thallus. The algal component in the lichen is generally called as ‘photobiont’ as it contains photosynthetic pigment. The fungal part is called as ‘mycobiont’ (myco = fungus). The photobiont and the mycobiont loose their original identity in symbiotic association and the resulting organism is the lichen which behaves as a single organism, both morphologically and physiologically. Hence, the lichen is called as a composite organism. The lichen thallus is made 90% of mycobiont which provides shape, structure and colour to the lichen. In a lichen thallus whatever visible from outside is fungal part, which holds algae inside its body (Fig. 1) and therefore, the lichens are placed within the Kingdom - Fungi. The fungi present in lichens are called as ‘lichenized fungi’. Among the 20,000 lichen species present in the world, 98.9% of them belongs to Ascomycetes group while Bacidiomycetes and Deuteriomycetes groups are represented by only 0.1% and 1%, respectively.

Before carry out any ethnobotanical work, first define the goal of the assignment or study before selecting the approach, which best suits the interests, budget and schedule. Most of the methods used in ethnobotanical studies are time taking and costly because several field trips are required in several seasons for covering different ritual occasions and seasonal farming activities which are continue for a number of years for completion of an assignment. In this way, an assignment may be very long or short as per selection approach of an ethnobotanist. Long-term assignment or projects may be continue for several years and they require sufficient financial input. When sufficient financial add and time does not available to accomplished long term assignments, in that case a Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal (REA) can be done.

1. Introduction

Microbial diversity is becoming increasingly essential with the requirement to preserve the integrity, function and long-term sustainability of natural and managed ecosystems. However, our knowledge of the diversity of microbes remains obscure due to lack of appropriate approaches to evaluate the contribution of different components of the soil microbes to ecosystem. This lack of approaches together with the complex and heterogeneous matrix that soil microbes are embedded in, poses great challenges to understand the dynamics of microbial communities in soils (Nautiyal et al. 2010; Chauhan et al. 2013).

In classical terms, diversity is described as the total number of species present, i.e. species richness or species abundance, and the distribution of individuals among those species i.e. species evenness or species equitability. However, the incorporation of these two components into diversity indices has led to much controversy among ecologists (Atlas 1984). The Shannon-Weaver index (Shannon and Weaver 1949) is probably the most widely used index for measuring diversity of a microbial community. But this index, as many others that have been proposed, has its own limitations. A major difficulty is that both richness and evenness play a role in determining the value of the index. Therefore, any diversity index is a single value and thus cannot indicate the total make-up of a community. It is recommended that evenness, richness and diversity values should be calculated in order to obtain an objective assessment of community structure (Atlas 1984). From molecular point of view, diversity often refers to the number of different sequence type present in a habitat e.g. a soil (Ogram 2000). Measuring this type of diversity does not give information about the frequency of individual species, but it can give valuable information about changes in the community structure and species richness in response to changes in the physico-chemical properties of the soil and soil management practices (Nautiyal et al. 2010).

All separation procedures depend mainly on some physical characteristics of the compounds. It is relatively easy to separate compounds that have significantly different physical characteristics by simple techniques such as solvent extraction. If the various compounds are similar to each other in their molecular size, any slight difference in any one of their physical properties is exploited to achieve separation. 

Seed is a basic input to raise the crop plants. Healthy seeds produces the healthy crop. However, the seed carries different pathogens either externally or sometimes internally in the seed to affect the seed emergence and healthy seedling growth. Therefore, the seed treatment with fungicides/bactericides, based on the infection of the pathogen, is highly essential to counter the attack and infection of these pathogens to the germinating seedlings.