eChapters

In India many medicinal plants traditionally used by tribal and other sources have been recorded by different authors, workers and researchers. Many plants that can cause symptomatic relief for various ailments have also been established. Attempts have been made by different scientists to ascertain the active principles behind the herbal cure of certain diseases. Ayurvedic preparations from plant sources have been developed in our country to certain extent. Many Homeopathic medicines have also been procured from plants and herbs. Scientific conferences in State, National and International levels are being held on Traditional Asian Medicines to ascertain the scientific truth behind them. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar and many other Institutes of our country are doing creditable work to isolate the composition of medicinal plants. Many useful compounds have been isolated from different medicinal flora and their efficiency has been established scientifically. Good numbers of Allopathic medicines prepared on the basis of herbal cures are flooding in the market in different trade marks. Still the country is to find preventive and curative medicines for Cancer, AIDS, Thalsamia and other such deadly diseases. Recent International Conference on Cancer held at New Delhi came out with a suggestion that certain flora could be explored for the possibility of treating cancer without side effects. When we are starting to realize the importance of flora for a healthy living and scientists are in search of drugs from the vegetation to irradicate diseases deforestation is reampant in our country. Our environment has been contaminated due to various types of pollutants from industries and other anthropogenic sources. At this juncture man has to maintain a balance to achieve harmony of both the factors for our better living. The tribal dweller who is considered as the ‘Maa in the forest’ has to be recognized first so far his knowledge in medicinal plants is concerned. After ascertaining the utility of medicinal plants they are to be protected, propagated both by Government and Public. Scientific experiments are to be carried out to establish the active principles behind the herbal drugs. Herbal gardens are to be instituted at different places by adopting modern biotechnological methods. There is a need to make joint efforts by the workers from the fields of Allopathic, Ayurved and Homeopathic, as a step towards “the irradication of diseases”. Such an inter-disciplinary work on medicinal plants may throw a new light for achieving success, in finding out medicines without side effect. In this context, Pharmacologists have to play a vital role while preparing the doses of drugs from plant sources.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to West Indies (Jamaica), Central and South America. Jamaica is the main producer of allspice.

• In India, there are few trees in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

• Available in the Mahendragiri hills of Kanniyakumari, and Kallar and Burliar of the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu; Ambalavayal in Kerala.

12.2. Economic importance

• It combines the odour and flavour of nutmeg, clove, cinnamon and pepper and hence, called all spice.

• Berry, berry oil, oleoresin, leaf oil are the products of economic use.

• Used in food industry (65 to 70%), domestic use (5 to 10%), production of berry oil (20 to 25%), extraction of oleoresin (1 to 2%), and pharmaceutical and perfume industry.

• Has, anti-microbial, insecticidal, nematicidal, anti-oxidant and deodorant properties.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• The plant originated in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, India, and at present it is cultivated in Burma, Ceylon, China, Australia and the Pacific Islands.

6.2. Economic importance

• Curry leaves are a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin B2, calcium, and iron, apart from a heavy distinctive odor and pungent taste.

• It helps in the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, diabetes, morning sickness, and nausea by adding curry leaves to your meals.

6.3. Varieties

• Sen Kaampa, Dharwad-1 and Dharwad-2

6.4. Soil and climate

• Red sandy loam soils with good drainage are ideal for better leaf yield.

• Optimum temperature is 26° to 37°C.

ABSTRACT

In cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) there are successful reports on the production of shoots from nodal segments under in vitro,the rooting was always inconsistent and mortality during hardening stage was very high. In the present study 20-30 per cent rooting was obtained in half strength MS supplemented with activated charcoal. Maximum rooting was obtained when the shoots were pretreated with IBA 5000 mg l^-1 for three seconds followed by culturing in the media.

Preservation methods are generally believed to be responsible for a depletion of naturally occurring antioxidants in food. Processed fruit and vegetables are expected to have a lower health protecting capacity than fresh ones. This is because, up to now, only selected and barely stable antioxidants of nutritional interest (e.g. ascorbic acid) have been commonly assessed as indicators of processing damage. On the basis of these supposed negative effects, in the past few years, the main tool for minimizing eventual processing damage was the strategy of ‘reconstitution’, achieved by the addition or the enrichment of the product with natural antioxidants.

It is well known that food processing can have many effects not all of which result in a loss of quality and health properties. Blanching also represents a useful tool in preventing enzymatic oxidations, which are the main cause of loss in naturally occurring antioxidants in raw material of plant origin. In fact, fruit and vegetables subjected to blanching retain most of their original antioxidant properties.

Lycopene appears to be a relatively stable compound during food processing but it has been reported that heating tomato pulp to produce paste, ketchup, juice and other products, can cause degradation of lycopene and other carotenoids. Other antioxidants naturally present in tomato, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, polyphenolic flavonoids and non-lycopene carotenoids, may play a role in preventing the degradation of lycopene. Thermal processes might break down cell walls and weaken the bonding forces between lycopene and the tissue matrix. Such disruptions in the cell wall fraction may enhance the release of phytochemicals from the matrix. This may make lycopene more accessible or more stable and thus increase the nutritional quality and antioxidant activity of product. An increase in carotenoids by thermal processing has also been attributed to enzymatic degradation which causes weakening in protein-carotenoid aggregates. Destruction of vitamin C is destroyed mainly due to oxidation reactions and the heat applied in the presence of air. The degree of loss of ascorbic acid is closely correlated to the drying temperature used for the production of the end product. The increase in the amounts of some phenolic substances having antioxidant activity was associated with two concomitant events: firstly, the thermally induced extraction of antioxidant molecules previously complexed or polymerized and secondly, the retention of active compounds caused by the inactivation of the enzymes involved in their catabolism.

Genotoxicity potential of any environmental pollutants can be investigated using the micronucleus (MN) test. It is among the most sensitive DNA damage indicators and it has been applied to several organisms and tissues for evaluation of environmental contaminants (Lemos et al., 2011). Micronuclei (MN) assay is more rapid and simpler than chromosomal analysis (Gandhi et al., 2003). Compared to the chromosome aberrations, the final result is relatively easily scored and thus requires less time to make an assessment of the clastogenicity of a chemical (Garriott et al. 2002). An in vitro MN assay can detect the clastogens and aneugens as well as mitotic delay, apoptosis, chromosome breakage, chromosome loss and non-disjunction (Corvi et al., 2008). Although, micronuclei constitute well-characterized biomarkers of chromosomal damage (Salazar et al. 2009) but in vitro MN test does not provide information on the origin of micronuclei (Corvi et al., 2008).

Experimental Procedure

Micronuclei assay is carried out in PMNC and splenocytes as per method of Hayashi et al. (1983).

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of tropical Asia and Africa.

• Tropical India, from North-west Himalayas to Assam and Deccan plateau.

• In Karnataka, it is grown along Western Ghats.

• Important species in India - Gloriosa superba and G. rothschildiana.

• Tamil Nadu leads in production of glory lily in India

• State flower of Tamil Nadu

5.2. Economic importance

• Economic part: Seed

• Rhizomes are used as a tonic, antiperiodic, antihelminthic and also against snake bites and scorpion stings.

• Used for promoting labour pains and an abortifacient.

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Eastern and Southern Africa, the Canary Islands and Spain.

• Spread to Mediterranean basin, West Indies, India, China.

• Also cultivated in India. It is the miracle plant.

8.2. Economic importance

• Source of drug aloe; aloe gel is a mixture of glucoside aloin, main constituent of atom is barbation.

• Commercially important species - A. barbadensis, A. ferox, A. africana and A. spicata

• Yellow bitter juice from leaves consists of aloin and gel.

• Other products - dehydrated aloe powder, concentrates.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in Tropical America

• Distributed in all tropical and sub-tropical regions

9.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and hypophyllanthin

• Antioxidant with free radical scavenging properties due to presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase.

• Effective in treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc.

• Treatment of Hepatitis B and j aundice

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India and tropical South East Asia.

• Distributed throughout plains of India from Uttar Pradesh to Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

10.2. Economic importance

• King of bitters.

• Economic part - Dried leaves and tender shoots (Whole plant)

• Leaves contain three bitter principles: Deoxy andrographolide, Andrographolide and Neo andrographolide.

• Roots contain flavonoids like andrographin, panicothin, aplegenin etc.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Persia and neighbouring tracts of Western and Southern Asia

• In India, North Guj arat, Raj asthan, Haryana and Bihar are the maj or states.

• Husk and peel - exported to USA, Germany, UK and France

12.2. Economic importance

• Psyllium from Greek meaning flea, in reference to colour, size and shape.

• Economic part - Seed coat, husk used in indigenous medicine. Seeds contain glucoside and tannin.

• Works as an anti-diarrhoea drug.

• Seed - Pentose, a sugar is isolated.

A high-yielding cultivar Vallabh Medha of mandukparni (Centella asiatica) was identified. Fresh herbage yield (12,331 kg/ha) and dry herbage yield (2,113 kg/ ha) of this variety were far more than the local variety (2,050 and 392 kg/ha respectively), besides higher active ingredients. Among mucuna selections, IIHR PS 15 with long duration, IIHR PS 6 with medium duration and IIHR PS 14 with short duration recorded significantly higher yield and high L-dopa yield/ plant. In Coleus, a promising hybrid, Hy 08-53, recorded significantly higher root yield (60.22g) and higher forskolin yield/plant (0.58 g). In ashwagandha, IIHR- WS 3 was found to be the best yielder (11.65 q/ha).

14.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Africa and distributed throughout warmer regions of world

• Naturally grown in hilly areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

14.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root

• Roots of safed musli contains 2-15% saponin having medicinal property of enhancing vitality and immunity to human beings.

• Also helps in correcting gynecological disorders.

• Dried tubers - Used as curative for pre-natal and post-natal illness, arthritis, restorative and a health tonic

• Known as divya aushadhi and ayurvedic anori.

Acetylcholinesterase activity in brain is measured by the method described by Ellman’s et al. (1961).

Reagents

1. Phosphate buffer (0.1M) (pH 8.0) Solution A: 5.22 g of K2 HPO4 and 4.68 g of NaH2 PO4 are dissolved in 150 ml of distilled water. Solution B: 6.2 g of NaOH is dissolved in 150 ml of distilled water. Solution B is added to solution A to get desire pH 8.0 and then finally the volume is made up to 300 ml with distilled water.

2. DTNB reagent 39.6 mg of DTNB with 15 mg of NaHCO3 is dissolved in 10 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer.

3. Acetylthiocholine (ATC) 21.67 mg of Acetylthiocholine is dissolved in 1 ml of distilled water.

Procedure

The brain tissue is weighed and 10% homogenate is made in 0.1M Phosphate buffer (pH 8.0). Take 0.4 ml aliquot of homogenate in a cuvette containing 2.6 ml phosphate buffer (0.1M) and 100 µl DTNB. The contents of the cuvette are mixed thoroughly by bubbling air and absorbance is measured at 412 nm in a spectrophotometer. When absorbance reached a stable value, it is recorded as the basal reading .To this 20 µl of acetylthiocholine is added and change in absorbance is recorded for a period of 10 min at intervals of 2 min. Change in the absorbance per minute determined.

16.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Asia

• Widely distributed in tropical regions of Asia and Pan tropics

• Most part of India up to 1000m elevation includes Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

16.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Seed, roots.

• Black seed variety contains L - DOPA CL - 34 dihydroxy phenylalanine non-protein amino acid.

• Used as tonic, aphrodisiac and treatment of Parkinson’s disease

• Used in rheumatic ailments.

17.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India, China, Indonesia, Madagascar and Africa.

17.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant mainly leaves and roots.

• Cures leprosy, skin diseases, diarrhoea, anti-tumor and anti-ulcer activity.

• Fresh herb - Aromatic odour when crushed.

• Nauseous bitter taste

• Kitchen herb - Chutneys, pickles, refreshing drinks

• Possess insecticidal properties

• Used as a nerve tonic for improving memory and in insanity.

18.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of wetlands of Southern and Eastern India, Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and North and South America

• Cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical India.

18.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Chemical constituents: Bacosides

• Used as a nerve tonic and for epilepsy and insanity.

• Used as diuretic and for treating rheumatisim, asthma and hoarseness.

LD 50- It is defined as the concentration/dose that kills 50 % of the experimental population.

Acute toxic studies have been conducted in order to calculate LD50. There are several methods to calculate LD50, some are as follows:

Methods to Determine LD 50

• Karber’s method.

• Miller & Tainter method

• Lorke method

• Fixed dose method

• Acute Toxic Class method

• Up & down procedure

Karber’s Method

This method involves the administration of different doses of test substance to various groups, which has five animals each. The first group of animals is administered with the vehicle in which the test substance was dissolved or diluted

India is fortunate in terms of natural wealth, which is manifested in its great plants diversity. Since time immemorial medicinal plants nature hidden and to a large extent unexplored treasure has been used virtual in all human cultures around the country. The wide spread use of herbal remedies and health care preparation from commonly used traditional herb and medicinal plants as those described in ancient texts such as Vedas, the Quran and the Bible have been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal properties. Ancient people used plants as purgatives, sedatives, antitussives, and to alleviate a wide range of ailments such as fever and insanity. According to WHO, 3.5 billion people in developing countries use plant based medicines for their primary health care. WHO also indicates that over 30% of the world’s plants species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purpose.
 
The people of India have been using thousands of medicinal plants for curing various diseases suggesting that Ayurveda has been widely use to maintain human health. Ancient Indian medicinal heritage is based on 7000 plant species and about 8000 herbal remedies have been codified in the Ayurveda. Plants in Ayurveda have Sanskrit names the synonyms; each plant may have synonyms ranging from five to hundred.