eChapters

Ajowan is a profusely branched winter annual herb, seed oil of which is a major source of thymol, being present to extent of 35-60%. Ajowan oil is aromatic, stimulant and carminative.  It possesses antimicrobial activity. Ajowan seeds are employed either alone or in combination with spices and condiments. It is used in pickles, confectionery and beverages.  It is a good remedy for indigestion.  A paste of crushed fruit is applied externally for relieving colic pains.  It is also used in lotions and ointments.

Garlic is recognized all over the world as a valuable condiment for food and medicine. It is a native of Western Asia and Mediterranean area where it is in cultivation for centuries. China, Korea, India, USA, Spain, Argentina and Egypt are the major garlic growing countries, China being the largest producer (Pandey, 2004). Europeans, especially the Italians and the Spanish used this spice regularly for 2000 years and more. Garlic is one of the important spicy bulbs grown commercially in India. The plant is cultivated in temperate and tropical climates. Important states producing garlic on commercial scale are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Demand of garlic is increasing day by day in domestic and export markets. Garlic and garlic products, especially dehydrated garlic and garlic powder are gaining considerable economic importance recent times.

To fully explore the history of medical and drug development, it would be necessary to go back as early as 13,000 BCE, where drawings on the Lascaux caves in France suggest that humans were using plants for medicinal purposes. Since then, medical traditions have evolved and dissolved across societies all over the globe. Natural products including plants, animals and minerals have been the basis of treatment of human diseases. The last two centuries have seen a focus on scientific medicine, with a focus on drugs whose effects that have been proved by the scientific method. Yet given this setting, many of the major pharmaceutical corporations have renewed their strategies in favor of natural product drug discovery. Numerous drugs have entered the international pharmacopoeia via the study of ethnopharmacology and traditional medicine. At this point in history, it is possible for both traditional and western medicine to benefit from collaboration between the two disciplines. For traditional medicines, newer guidelines of standardization, manufacture and quality control and scientifically rigorous research on the scientific basis for traditional treatments will be required. In return, traditional medical traditions can offer a more holistic approach to drug design and myriad possible targets for scientific analysis. Powerful new technologies such as automated separation techniques, high-throughput screening and combinatorial chemistry are revolutionizing drug discovery. Traditional knowledge can serve as powerful search engine, which will greatly facilitate intentional, focused and safe natural product drug discovery and help to rediscover the drug discovery process. By looking at the historical trends in drug and medical developments, it is possible to understand how current drug development will benefit from this partnership.

ABSTRACT

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is an important crop in the tropics and subtropics for export of fruits and above all, for local consumption. Cultivation of papaya faces with problems due to its heterozygosity, dioecious nature and susceptibility to a large number of viral diseases. Crossing between two hermaphrodites will produce the highest ratio of fruit bearing female trees, which is of homozygous dominant andromonoecious types which are always letha l due to po st fertilization barriers leading to their abortion. The gynodioecious varieties of papaya have the M1M1 forms while selfing and hence for explant selection , gynodioecious varieties like Sunrise solo and CO7 were prefered Embryo culture is one of the earliest forms of in vitro culture applied to solve practical problems and is probably the tissue culture techniques that has proven of greatest value to breeders. Ovule culture is practised in a case when small (or) young embryos that abort at early stages of development and are difficult to isolate. This necessiates the development of a protocol for initiation, multiplication and regeneration of ovular callus of papaya.

Introduction

The present trend in the search for new drugs is to look at natural sources, which are safer for humans and ecofriendly. Of late there has been increased awareness about the detrimental effects of synthetic food supplements, food additives and drugs, and the search for natural alternatives in plants has intensified. In this regard, horticultural crops are particularly appealing since they are not only edible, but also have diverse nutraceutical effects. Nutraceuticals (often referred to as phytochemicals or functional foods) are natural, bioactive chemical compounds that have health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties (http://foodsci.rutgers.edu),such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antimicrobial effects, to name just a few. Most of these properties are attributed to the secondary metabolites present in plants, various phytochemicals including flavonoids, terpenoid, lignans, sulfides, polyphenolics, carotenoids, coumarins, saponins, plant sterols, curcumins, phthalides etc. The medicinal value of our horticultural crops is not a new knowledge, it has been exploited by the traditional systems of medicines like Ayurveda, folklore medicines and ‘kitchen remedies’ since time immemorial.

A functional food is similar in appearance to, or may be, a conventional food that is consumed as part of a usual diet, and is demonstrated to have physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions, i.e. they contain bioactive compound.

A nutraceutical is a product isolated or purified from foods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with foods. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.

1. Introduction

Therapeutic plants have different metabolites in them because of which they are generally utilized in the whole world by individuals to fix different illnesses. India has a rich history of involving many plants for therapeutic purposes. Therapeutic plants are assuming an exceptionally dynamic part in conventional medications for the treatment of different afflictions. India is a rich wellspring of restorative plants because of the varieties in soil, their heights, and other ecological and geological conditions. India’s utilization of plants for medical services goes back nearly 5000 years, when Ayurveda systematized around 8000 natural cures by utilizing plants. Root and tuber crops possess a striking situation in the food security of the creating scene because of their high caloric worth and sugar content. Some of them are as of now under development; however different species are developing wild as a dismissed gathering of financial plants. A portion of the tuberous species is significant due to their restorative as well as modern application. 

Introduction

Packaging and storage are two most important operations in post harvest supply chain of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. The self-life, damage, loss, sale and profit from commodities depend on storage and packaging parameters. The primary objective of packaging of fruits and vegetables is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration, which may be physical, chemical, or biological. Packaging is hence provided at the point of production or processing or at distribution centers. Though packaging forms the last link in the chain of production, storage, marketing and distribution, it still plays an important role in delivering the contents safe from the ‘‘farm gate to the consumer plate.’’ Increase in production can have an impact on the consumer only when the food is wholesome, unadulterated and available under hygienic conditions at an economical price.

India is the second largest producer of fruits However, the export potential of fruits and vegetables is very negligible. This is because of improper knowledge to the farmer about proper post-harvest infrastructure facilities. Fruits have a high-water content ranging from 70-95 per cent. They dry quickly under any normal atmospheric condition. These causes loss of rigidity and shrinkage of the cells cause wilting and shrivelling. Appropriate packaging ensures prolonged the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by preventing moisture loss and thereby wilting. Transportation is a critical phase in the fruit supply chain that can significantly affect the quality of fruits. Several factors during transportation can lead to quality degradation such as temperature/humidity fluctuations, mechanical damage, transit time etc. To mitigate the adverse effects of transportation on fruit quality, best practices ie, real-time monitoring, temperature and humidity control, loading/unloading techniques can be employed. Quality evaluation is a critical component in the fruit industry, encompassing a range of assessments to ensure fruits meet the desired standards for consumer satisfaction, shelf life, regulatory compliance, and market competitiveness. It involves a comprehensive approach that includes physical, chemical, and sensory assessments, supported by advanced technological tools, to maintain and enhance the quality of fruits throughout the supply chain. This book chapter deals with the effective packaging, transportation, and quality evaluation of fruits, ensuring that consumers receive fresh, high-quality produce.

8.1. Packaging

• One of the important steps in long and complicated j oumey from grower to consumer.

• Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins, and palletized containers are convenient containers for handling, transporting, and marketing fresh produces.

8.2. Packaging points

• Recyclability / Biodegradability

• Variety

• Sales appeal

• Shelflife

• Containment

• Protection

• Identification

? To provide information on produce name, brand, size, grade, variety, net weight, count, grower, shipper, and country of origin.

? Universal Product Codes (UPC or bar codes) is included as part of labelling.

? UPC is used in food industry which consists of a ten digit machine readable code.

Introduction

“The World Packaging Organisation’s (WPO) slogan, “Better Quality of Life Through Better Packaging”, sumps up the important place that packaging occupies in a modern economy.

As the economics of many countries are increasing, the consumers have started using more processed food. As a matter of fact global food processing and packaging business has reached to multi trillion dollars. In today’s world of global markets and stiff competition in every product along with increasing consumer demand, it becomes imperative for companies to explore ways to improve their productivity in terms of maintaining safety, using sustainable packaging materials, implementing flexible and standardized technology, and adopting proven management. Towards this end, companies have been striving to improve the efficiencies of their operations through improvements in the processes. Reducing wastes and shortening lead times becomes all the more imperative in the food industry due to the perishable nature of the product. Moreover, recent advances in technology such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and nano-materials afford companies greater opportunities to streamline the processing, packaging, and manufacturing schemes.

1. Introduction

Packaging is the integral part and cornerstone of food processing industry. The development of food processing industry goes hand in hand with advancement of packaging technology. Packaging Institute International has defined packaging as “enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance”. Lockhart has defined packaging as “a socio-scientific discipline that operates in society to ensure the delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer of those goods in the best condition intended for their use”. Food packaging technology has came a long way from use of anything in hand for wrapping up a product to becoming a key element in product development and design.

Introduction
Palmarosa/Roshagrass (Cymbopogon martinii var. motia): It is a tall perennial tuffed hedge grown naturally as well as commercially in the old world tropics and sub-tropics of India. It occurs in open scrub forests in parts of MP, Maharashtra and AP, where it is commercially collected and distilled for its oil. It is also sporadically found in Karnataka, TN and part of UP. The herb along with flowering tops and foliage, on distillation yield a colourless to pale yellow essential oil with sweet scented\ rose-like aroma, containing high geraniol; and used in cosmetics, toiletry and perfumery industry. Concerted efforts during last two decades to develop better cultural practices and development of improved varieties, the area has expanded all over the central, western and southern states of India. This crop is commercially grown in Indonesia, East African countries, Cuba and Brazil. At present, the total oil production is estimated to be around 300 tonnes annually, and two-third (200t) of it comes from cultivation.
Ginger grass (Cymbopogon martinii Stapf. var. sofia): This is another form of roshagrass. Its distribution is overlapping in forests with the ture palmarosa grass, although it has preference for more moist-substratum. Both the forms are morphologically identical in field except their odour when leaves are crushed. Ginger grass has dense tuft and more luxuriant growth, but produces shorter inflorescence and more tolerant to the stagnating water. It crosses freely with palmarosa in nature, producing many intermediary forms.

Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer L.) is a tropical dioecious palm adapted to arid zone tracts. Though it is a versatile plant which yields many edible and non-edible products it is a less exploited species. It is used for sap, fruit, seed, leaf and fiber and timber products. From nutritional point of view, fruit pulp and seed shoot flour are the most important.Successful promotion of these as foods for general consumption depends on subjecting the fruit pulp to a debittering process, and the seed shoot flour, to initial detoxification processes (Thabrew and Jansz, 2004). Palmyra palms are the most numerous palms in the world after coconut palm (Fox, 1977). Despite this, they are the least studied of all the palms.

Botanical Name: Borassus fabellifier
    ·    Borassus flabellifer - Asian Palmyra palm/Lontar palm/Doub palm/Sea Coconut (Southern Asia and Southeast Asia)
    ·    Borassus aethiopum - African Palmyra Palm (Tropical Africa)
    ·    Borassus akeassii - Ake Assi’s Palmyra Palm (West Africa)
    ·    Borassus heineanus - New Guinea Palmyra Palm (New Guinea)
    ·    Borassus madagascariensis - Madagascar Palmyra Palm (Madagascar)
    ·    Borassus sambiranensis - Sambirano Palmyra Palm (Madagascar)

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the tropical Africa and grows in the Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.

• Palm is widespread in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

• In Tamil Nadu, it is present in Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, Thenkasi, Virudhunagar, Ramanathapuram Madurai, Theni, Salem, Namakkal, Kancheepuram, Chengalpattu, Tiruvallur, Villupuram, Kallakurichi and Cuddalore districts.

• Palm is dioecious in nature.

• Palmyrah was declared as “State Tree of Tamil Nadu” by the Government of Tamil Nadu.

1. Introduction

Among the various well associated morphological units in plants, the reproductive units demand maximum protection which is achieved in pollen grains (also in spores) by encasing the germplasm with a well organized wall with a unique structure and ornamentation. Apart from its functional significance, the wall bears important characteristics which are of immense diagnostic and phylogenetic values. The morphological diversities in pollen and spore organization are greatly exemplified in the vascular plants. The term ‘Palynology’ was coined by Hyde and Williams in 1944 for the science of pollen studies, which include the study of pollen as well as spores. Although some investigators tend to limit the scope of palynology to morphological investigations but others include pollen analyses of peats, coals, honey, and rocks as well as the resulting conclusions drawn from this information, and in a wider sense it is also connected with the pollen chemistry.

The wall of pollen and spores is a very peculiar substance which is resistant to the destructive action of corrosive acids and alkalis and is readily preserved in nature under suitable conditions. The shape, size, and ornamentation or sculpturing of pollen has been the subject of study since the invention of the microscope. Pollen morphology is therefore greatly utilized in interpretation of ancient floras, for determining authentic species phylogeny, distribution and climatic conditions under which they grew, based upon the pollen content of the matrices. Pollen which lodges in moss tufts and lichen mats, or falls in water and gradually sink, or those that fall on sphagnum and clays particularly under anaerobic conditions, are well preserved. This pollen is not destroyed in the transformation of peats to lignite or clay in shale and thus has been preserved for hundreds of thousands of years.

During the present century pollen morphological studies are substantiated and elaborated magnanimously with the aid of Electron microscopy. The surface configuration and finer details are being accurately analyzed for their proper application in plant taxonomy as well as in microfossil diagnosis.

INTRODUCTION

The term ‘ginseng’ is applied to a range of plants from family Araliaceae involving genus Panax. Out of the many species available in nature, Himalayas are also home to a commercially lesser known variety called as Panax psuedoginseng Wall (Nayar and Shastry 1990). In the interior temperate areas of the eastern Himalayas, the species is distributed across Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and extends into China. Keeping in view its high commercial international demand, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (CSIR-IHBT) Palampur has recently taken an initiative to introduce and cultivate Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) in the Lahaul valley of Himachal Pradesh, in India. This chapter addresses the different biological, chemical, medicinal and cultivation aspects of both the indigenous Himalayan variety (P. psuedoginseng) and the introduced Chinese species (P. ginseng) in particular.

The papaya (Carica papaya L.) belongs to the family Caricaceae. It is an important fruit of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It is the most important plant in the home gardens, and where green papaya is also used as a vegetable. Ripe fruits are eaten as dessert, which is available throughout the year.

Papaya is native to West Indies and Central America (Mexico). It is a common fruit in nearly all parts of tropical and sub-tropical world. It is abundantly grown in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, South America, Pakistan, Australia, Mexico, Costa Rica, Hawaii, Kenya, Taiwan, Puerto Rica, Peru, USA, Philippines. It was introduced in India in 16^th Century. In India it is mainly cultivated in Kerala, Assam, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Cultivars: Honey Dew, Coorg Honey Dew, Washingtan, Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant, Co. 1 to Co. 7, Arka Surya, Arka Prabhat, Pusa Nanha, Pink Flesh Sweet, Pant 1, Sunrise Solo and Taiwan Red Lady, are the most popular varieties under cultivation in India.

1. Stem rot / Foot rot/Collar rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• The appearance of water-soaked spots on the stem close to ground level is what characterizes it.
• The tissues degrade as a result of the fast enlargement of these patches, girdling the stem and turning it dark brown or black.
• Strong winds cause these afflicted plants to topple over and eventually die.
• If the disease attack is not too severe, the plants will still be stunted and only one side of the stem will decay.
• If fruit develops, it is deformed and withered.
• The plant eventually dies (Fig.1).
Etiology
• Pathogen: Pythium aphanidermatum.
• Mycelium is colorless, slender, coenocytic, profusely branching and rapidly growing mostly intracellularly.
• Sporangia terminal or intercalary produce a vesicle at the end of hyphal branch.
• Zoospores biflagellate and reniform.

Fruit flies : Bactrocera cucurbitae,Toxotrypana curvicauda : Tephritidae

The fruit flies lay eggs on maturing fruits. The emerging maggots feed in the fruit pulp, causing rotting of the fruits.

AK grasshopper: Poekilocerus pictus: Acrididae

Nymphs and adults of the AK grass hopper feed on papaya leaves and tender bark.  Maximum damage is done during July-August in North India.
 
Aphids : Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae: Aphididae

Nymphs and adult aphids suck sap from leaves. They are more important as a vector of papaya mosaic virus disease. The affected trees die in an year or two.

Papaya, Carica papaya is a fruit mainly grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions. India is top most producer of papaya in the world and accounts for around 45 per cent of the total papaya production in the world. In India, the main cultivation of papaya is in the states of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. In north, due to frost problem, the cultivation is fruitful only in frost free areas as this fruit crop is highly frost sensitive. Few insect pests are of major concern in the cultivation of papaya, the description of which is given hereunder:

Papaya mealy bug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

It is an invasive pest believed to be a native of Mexico or Central America. In India, it was first reported in Tamil Nadu during July 2008 infesting papaya and later it spread to number of fruit, vegetables and ornamental crops in many states. The eggs are grain like and greenish yellow. The nymphs as well as adult is yellow but appears white due to waxy coating over its body

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originate from North America, in particular Central Mexico.

9.2. Economic importance

• Paprika contains capsanthin and capsorubin.

• Used to season and color rice, stews, and soups, such as goulash, and in the preparation of sausages, mixed with meats and other spices.

• There are six paprika American, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Moroccan, Spanish and Yugoslavian.

• In US, sprinkled raw on foods as a garnish.

9.3. Types and varieties

• Types of bell pepper

? Green pepper: Can be a little bitter, but it is very useful, such a fruit reduces the level of cholesterol in the blood. And it has the least calories.

? Red pepper: Is the sweetest and contains the most vitamin C.

? Orange pepper: It is also very tasty, but it contains slightly less vitamin C than red.

ABSTRACT

Soil samples from pepper growing tracts of six districts of Kerala viz., Ernakulam, Idukki, Kollam, Kottayam, Thrissur and Pathanamthitta were assessed for total microbial population. Thirty two fungi, 17 bacteria and three actinomycetes were isolated and studied for their antagonistic potential against the foot rot pathogen, Phytophthora capsici. All the 32 fungal isolates were found antagonistic to the pathogen and majority of them belonged to the genera Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Pythium, Cunninghamella and Rhizopus. Among these maximum inhibition was recorded by Trichoderma spp. which included T. pseudokoningii, T. longibrachiatum, T. polysporum and T. harzianum. The laboratory studies were followed by field trials laid out in farmers’ fields (newly planted pepper gardens) in six districts of Kerala. Effect of biocontrol agents in wilt incidence revealed that the two-time treatment of combined application of Trichoderma local isolate and potassium phosphate was superior in checking the foot rot incidence. The treatment, Trichoderma local isolate + Bordeaux mixture applied twice came in the second position. Data on biometric observations revealed a significant increase in the number of laterals in plots treated with Trichoderma local antagonist and potassium phosphate as compared to plots treated with Bordeaux mixture and copper oxychloride. Results of quality analysis of berries revealed that oleoresin content ranged from 6.98 - 11.84 per cent and piperine content from 3.61 - 5.92 per cent and the quality remain unchanged due to various treatments. The study has provided an ‘eco and health friendly’ biological control for the management of Phytophthora foot rot, the most devastating disease of pepper.

Mango is the choicest fruit of tropical world. Originated in Indo-Malayan region (Mukherjee, 1985), more than one thousand varieties are under commercial cultivation in India (Mukherjee 1949). South Indian varieties of mango are distinct (Yadav and Singh, 1985).  Naik and Gangolly (1950)  described 135 South Indian varieties, taking fruit character as the main criteria. North Kerala experiencing humid tropical climate is an important zone of variability of mango (Kannan, 1982). Polyembryonic mango cultivars like ‘Vellaikolamban’, ‘Kurukkan’ and ‘Bappakkai’ are traditionally grown here. Over the years, there is erosion in  gene pool of rich varietal wealth due to deforestation, urbanisation and large scale rubber cultivation in Kerala. Establishment of field gene bank is an important ex situ conservation strategy. Systematic attempts to conserve  genepool  resulted  in collection of  more than 1266 varieties in various field gene banks in our country (Chadha, 1976). Field Gene Bank (FGB) has the advantage of being continuously evaluated and desired accessions can immediately be utilized directly or in breeding programmes. Field gene bank very often represents only a fraction of variability of the gene pool and  enrichment of the collection is always required for capturing  available diversity.

Passion fruit, (Passiflora edulis Sims) belongs to the family Passiflora. Within this species, there are two distinct forms, the standard purple, and the yellow, distinguished as P. edulis f. flavicarpa Deg., and differing not only in color but in certain other features. The purple passionfruit is native of southern Brazil. The yellow form was unknown in India until just a few decades ago when it was introduced from Ceylon and proved well adapted to low elevations around Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Uses

Passionfruit juice can be boiled down to a sirup which is used in making sauce, gelatin desserts, candy, ice cream, sherbet, cake icing, cake filling, meringue or chiffon pie, cold fruit soup, or in cocktails. The seeded pulp is made into jelly or is combined with pineapple or tomato in making jam.

1. Introduction

Milk is a source of abundant nutrition has been a vital part of human civilization since prehistoric times. However, because of its perishable nature, it requires immediate processing to improve the shelf life and safe consumption .With the advancement of processing techniques in dairy and food processing, there is a widespread option being utilized to improve the milk shelf life byeither thermal technologies (pasteurization, sterilization, and ultra-high temperature) or nonthermal technologies (high pressure processing, high pressure homogenization, pulse electric field and ultra sonication). Still, pasteurization and sterilization are the two foremost process is used for milk industries. Pasteurization is the thermal inactivation of microorganisms at temperatures below100°C that enhance the safety and quality of milk and milk products and extends the shelf life to an extent. 

Introduction
Patchouli is known as patcholi in Hindi, patche tene in annada, patchapan or patcha in Marathi, patchilla in Malayalam, pacchilai in Tamil. It is a hardy perennial herb well-adjusted against the hot and humid climatic situations. Patchouli is an aromatic herb of immense importance due to presence of essential oil extracted from shade dried leaves. It possessed a powerful sweetness and spicy fragrance. Patchouli has tremendous business potential owning to its unique fragrance properties in the global market. Its oil easily blends with other essential oils giving strong base as fixative properties in preventing evaporation and promoting tenacity. Worldwide, Indonesia is considered as the chief patchouli oil producer.
Origin
Pogostemon cablin Benth. is natural to Philippines but also found growing wild in many countries of South Asian region. The word ‘cablin’ is derived from ‘cabalam’, a local name in the Philippines. Presently, it is not only cultivated on commercial scale in India but also in Indonesia, Singapore, China, Malaysia, Brazil, West Africa, Seychelles, Vietnam and West Indies.

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Philippines

• Grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.

• Natural habitat extends across Paruguay, Penang, East and West Indies, sub-tropical Himalayas and Deccan peninsula.

• Introduced into India by Tata Oil Mills

• Cultivated in Bangalore and coastal areas of South India, Bengal, Odisha and Assam.

10.2. Economic importance

• Oil of patchouli is called patchoulol. Oil contains benzaldehyde, eugenol and cinnamic aldehyde etc.

Leaf webber: Syngamia abruptalis :Pyralidae
 
Caterpillars feed extensively on tender foliage leaving veins alone and the growth of the plants are affected.

Leaf roller: Psara stullalis: Pyralidae

Larvae of these small moths are also leaf Webbers and rollers, and rolls the leaves and feed inside causing browning and drying of affected leaves. Inspect the crop for the pest incidence and remove the initial attacks systematically.

Scientific name: Pogostemon cablin Benth.
Family: Lamiaceae
Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) is a perennial herb native to Southeast Asia, commonly found in India, China, and Indonesia. This fragrant herb has been used for centuries in traditional medicine, perfumery, and spiritual practices. Patchouli leaves are ovate-shaped, with a rough texture and a powerful, earthy fragrance. The leaves are steam-distilled to produce a rich, dark green essential oil with a distinctive scent. Patchouli is known for its anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antifungal properties, making it a popular ingredient in aromatherapy, skincare, and insect repellents. In India, patchouli is considered a sacred herb and is often used in traditional Indian medicine, Ayurveda, and Hindu rituals and ceremonies.
Origin and distribution
Patchouli, a native plant of the Philippines and Indonesia, has been extensively cultivated in various regions. In Indonesia, patchouli cultivation began in Aceh, Sumatra, and later expanded to Java. In India, it is primarily grown in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam, and West Bengal.

Downy Mildew
Diagnostic Symptoms
• At first grayish white, moldy growth appears on the lower leaf surface, and a yellowish area appears on the opposite side of the leaf.
• Infected leaves can turn yellow and die if weather is cool and damp.
• Stems may be distorted and stunted.
• Brown blotches appear on pods, and mold may grow inside pods(Fig-2).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Phylum :Heterokontophyta
Class : Oomycota
Order : Peronosporales
Family :Peronosporaceae
Genus :Peronospora

 

The disease is seen at 3-4 leaves stage. Scattered, irregular, yellowish patches appear on the upper surface of the leaves and stipules. On the corresponding under surface of these patches, a greyish violet fi ne cottony mildew growth is seen. Infected tissue soon dies and turns brown. The disease fi rst appears on lower leaves and later spreads to upper leaves.

The peach tree (Prunus persica L.) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach. It is a deciduous tree growing to 4–10 m (13–33 ft) tall, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It is classified with the almond in the subgenus Amygdalus within the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other sub genera by the corrugated seed shell. Among the temperate fruit’s peaches require relatively less chilling temperature. Now peach is a commercial crop in Argentina, Austria, Canada, Chile, Europe, USA, China, India and Japan. In India, it grown in hills of Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sun Red, Red, Nectarine, Kateroo, Flordasun, Florda gold, Sharbati, Maygold, Kanto-5, Stark Early Flame, Summerset, Early White Giant, Redglobe, Alexander, First Gold, Early Gold and Sweet Gold.

Uses

Peachs are grown both for dessert and processing purposes. It is also used for making wine. Peach fruit juice is a common drink. Peach kernel has high protein and its oil is used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. The cake after extraction of oil can be used for various purposes. Peach flowers and leaves are anthelmintic and purgative.

Green peach aphid/peach leaf curl aphid : Brachycaudus helichrysi Aphididae

These are green aphids that suck the sap from growing buds. Leaf buds become weak and result in poor setting and premature fruit fall.
 
Blossom thrips : Thrips rhopalantennalis, T. flavus, T. florum, Haplothrips tenuipennis, Frankliniella dampfi : Thripidae

These are tiny, yellow, pale-brown and black slender insects seen within the flowers and flower buds. Adults and nymphs lacerate floral parts and suck sap resulting in brown spots. Infested flowers give sickly and faded look. Lesions cause flower fall, inferior fruits and loss in yield. Attack on tender leaves causes necrotic silvering, curling, deformation and withering.

1) Leaf Curl
Taphrina deformans
Disease Symptoms
• Initially yellowish to reddish areas appear on leaf blade of young leaves in the spring.
• These areas progressively thicken and pucker along the midrib causing the leaf to curl.
• Infected leaves often develop red to purple color. Later on white to silvery coating of spores develop on the upper leaf surface and the affected leaves become crisp and brittle.
• Finally, infected leaves abscise prematurely or may sometimes remain attached , gradually turning dark brown on severly infected trees.
• Fruit infection is characterized by irregular, raised, wrinkled and reddish lesions.
• Infected flowers and fruits drop rapidally(Fig-1).

The fi rst symptom of disease appears in early spring soon after leaves come out of buds. Affected leaves become distorted and fold over as tips directed backwards. The whole lamina puckered except tip and blistered. In some leaves, part of leaf show distortion. Blistered portions are thicker, softer than the normal leaf blade. The affected areas remain green for a while and gradually become yellow and fi nally turn reddish-purple in colour. 

The pear or naspati (Pyrus spp) is a popular temperature fruit next to apples. It ranks high among sub-acid fruits as it contains less acid than almost any other fruit. Pear belongs to the genus Pyrus under the family Rosaceae and sub- family Pomoideae. The European pear (Pyrus communis) with a persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels and pyriform shape is different from Pyrus pyrifolia or Pyrus serotina (Asiatic pears) and are non-fleshy pedicels with apple shape.

It has been used as a food from time immemorial. The pear is a wholesome fruit and at par in importance with the apple. The flesh of the pear is, however, slightly harder than the apple, but it is juicier than the apple. Like the apple, it has few seeds. It grows on a comparatively large tree. It has generally yellow and brown colour. Sometimes, there is also a tint of red. It has several several varieties across the world.

It originated in mountainous reach of western China. The major pear producing countries are Italy, USA, Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Turkey and Australia. In India, it is mainly grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh.

Cultivars: In India, Bartlett is widely grown in Kashmir. Kieffer, a cross between Pyrus communis and Pyrus pyrifolia, is popular in South India. In Punjab, the popular varieties ar Patharnakh, Le Conte, Smith and Kieffer.

The pecan is one of the important nut crops of the world occupying fifth position among the tree nuts. It is one of the most valuable nuts and a gift of North America to the whole world. In USA, it is considered as “Queen of nuts” because of its value as wild and cultivated crop. Besides USA, pecan cultivation is being done in Australia, Canada, Egypt, India, Israel, Mexico, Morocco, Peru, Turkey and South Africa. Pecan is under cultivation only for the last about 100 years but gained enormous popularity as compared to other nut fruits which are growing since time immemorial.

In India, pecan cultivation was introduced in  1935 at Government Fruit Farm, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh. Some of the pecan plants also exist at Jardari orchard, Kandaghat, Distt. Solan and this plant material was probably introduced from California during 1950 by the erstwhile Maharaja of Patiala. It’s introduction to Uttrakhand dates back to mid fifties when Dr. Boshisen, the founder of Vivekanand Laboratory planted a few saplings of pecan at Hawalbagh in Almora hills.

Pollu beetle: Longitarsus nigripennis:Chrysomelidae

This pest is monophagous to pepper and no alternate host has been reported so far.

Nature of Damage

Adult is a shining blue flea beetle with yellow head and thorax and has thick enlarged femur and tibia. The adult beetle is only the size of a pin head.  The infested berries dry up and turn dark in colour. Berries become hollow and crumble when pressed and such hollow berries are called “Pollu” meaning empty. The eggs are laid on the berries @ 1-2 eggs in each hole. Eggs hatch in 5-8 days. The grub period extends for 30-32 days. The emerging grubs feed on the berries of pepper and consume the internal contents.

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS

2.1 Mango
 

Mango is considered to be an allopolyploid. The chromosome number is 2n =40. The polyembryonic seedlings of cv. Vellaikolumban, earlier reported to be 2n= 80 was later shown to be a diploid. In Canary Island, a putative tetraploid viz Gomera-1 has been identified.

Floral biology

Flower starts opening early in the morning from 4-7 a.m. and maximum flowers open between 9.30-10.30 a.m. and complete 11 a.m. Dehiscence of anthers takes place at 11.30 a.m. and it continues up to 3.45 p.m. The pollen grains are oval, or triangular or oblong. Stigma becomes receptive even 18 hours before flower opening. Mode of pollination is entomophily; nectar is present to attract the insects.

The flowering duration is usually of short i.e. 2 to 3 weeks. The mango inflorescence or panicle bears mainly two types of flowers - male and perfect. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000 to 6000 depending upon the variety and climatic factors. The percentage of perfect flowers varies between 0.74 per cent in Rumani, 16.41 to 55.7 per cent in Neelum and up to 69.8 per cent in Langra.

ABSTRACT

Astudy was undertaken to evaluate the performance of tissue culture derived plants vis a vis open pollinated seedlings of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton). A total of 102.5 ha (units) covering 50 ha in Kerala, 37.5 ha in Karnataka and 15 ha in Tamil Nadu was selected for the present study out of which each demonstration plot (unit) had an area of one hectare in which 80% of the plants are tissue cultured and 20% are open pollinated. Elite cardamom clones were subjected to in vitro multiplication and their respective open pollinated seedlings were compared. The planting was initiated in 1989 and completed with 1991 in all the zones identified. Plant growth characters such as number of tillers, number of bearing tillers and panicles per clump were recorded and compared. The yield was recorded in 1993-94 and 94-95 seasons after its stabilisation. Results indicated that tissue culture plants performed better compared to open pollinated seedlings with regard to growth attributes and yield irrespective of the seasons and zones. In Kerala region tissue culture plants exhibited a yield increase of 24.3 and 36% over open pollinated seedlings for the 1989 and 1990 plantings respectively. Similar trend was observed in Tamil Nadu for 1989 and 1990 planting where the percentage increase in yield became 130 and 21 respectively. In Kerala, the yield performance of tissue culture plants and open pollinated seedlings was on par during 1990 planting but in the subsequent year (1991) tissue culture plants showed 24% increase in yield compared to their respective open pollinated ones. Further, the study enabled to identify cardamom clones suited to in various zones of the cardamom tract. Accordingly 14 clones with a yield potential of over 750 kg/ha under moderate management were identified and this indicated that cardamom clones are highly location specific in their performance.

The effect of oil sludge on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea (L.) were evaluated using four levels of pollution viz: 0%; 0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75% of the 6kg soil and three levels of N.P.K. fertilizer (20:10:10) viz: low level (0.005 kg), normal level (0.01 kg) and high level (0.015kg). These treatments were imposed after the soil analysis were carried out on the site.  The results obtained show that pollution has a significant effect (P < 0.05) on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea, despite the different levels of fertilizer application with second level of pollution (0.25%) being the critical point. Thus, pollution retards the growth of this crop drastically beyond the critical level with Celosia argentea showing more tolerance to pollution at the post-application treatment than the pre-application treatment.

It is therefore suggested that land users should not embark on cultivating land that has an oil sludge pollution level beyond 0.25% of soil.

2.1 Introduction

Perfumery, the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. The history of perfume began in antiquity. The word perfume is used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, “per fumum”, meaning through smoke. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. The world’s first recorded perfume maker Tapputi was mentioned in a Cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. Perfume and perfumery also existed in India. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic Charaka Samhita. The Bible describes a sacred perfume, consisting of liquid myrrh, fragrant cinnamon and cassia. In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6^th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. Al-Kindi in the 9^th century wrote a book on perfumes entitled ‘Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations’ that has more than hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs.

French author Jean Giono once remarked, “The God creates the Odours, but the men manufacture the perfumes”. In today’s world, fragrances play bigger role than just being associated with a tiny bottle of liquid. It now serves the larger purpose of linking itself with anything you can imagine, from soaps to your favourite sweater knitted by your grandmother (Biswas, 2012). In the modern day, these products find their applications in items for personal sophistication to culinary delights and beverages, to a host of industrial products (Dev, 1993). India, a country known for its vast range of fragrant flowers and herbs, has used extracts from such raw material to produce incense sticks, medicines, body massage oils and sweet savouries.

The word ‘perfume’ is derived from the Latin term ‘perfumen’, meaning ‘through smoke’. Perfume is a fragrant liquid mainly distilled from natural oils, aromatic chemicals and resinoids; cologne is a lightly scented liquid used to cool the skin and deodorant contains chemicals to counter offensive body odour. Perfume is basically used by women, cologne by men and deodorant by both (Saha and Sareen, 1997). Throughout antiquity there was a continuous demand for incense, to mark the rites of scenting passage from birth to the grave, for the daily rituals of incensing rooms, linen and clothing. The South Asian synonym for perfume, ‘attar’, on the other hand, is derived from the Arabic word ‘aettr’ meaning ‘fat’ or ‘extract’. Almost all attars are basically aromatic oils extracted from flowers, plants and herbs through steam distillation. Some fragile flowers and oils that can not stand the heat of distillation are, however, crushed and the oil expelled by mechanical force (Mahmud, 1992).

Morphological characteristics

The plant is an erect undershrub, 1.5–2.5 m tall. Leaves are elliptic-oblong to lanceolate or ovate to ovate–lanceolate, 12–25 × 5–11 cm, acute or acuminate at apex, acute or cuneate at base, glabrescent, crenate-dentate; densely stellate–tomentose beneath; petiole 4–12 mm long; Fruits globose, drupes or berries, white to yellowish-brown with or without fruit stalk, fresh being succulent, 1–3 mm in dia. Intact fruits are smooth and brownish in colour and exhibit centrally located bilocular carpel and 4 nutlets each embedded with a yellowish white seed, in a transversely cut surface of a fruit;

Floral characteristics

Flowers appear in July-November are small, 0.5 cm long, pink in colour and crowded in axillary peduncled globose cymes, solitary, pedunculate or sessile. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic and fragrant. Calyx 4 or rarely 5 toothed, pubescent, corolla infundibular, 4 or rarely 5 lobed. Stamens are 4, exserted, anthers oblong 2 loculed, dorsifixed. Ovary is superior, 4 lobed, 4 loculed, 1 ovule in each locule, style short, stigma 2 lobed. Flowering & fruiting occurs during June–Dec. Fruits when tasted at first are somewhat sweet, later bitterish; fruit has fragrant odour specially after slight bruising the fruit. The fruits of Callicarpa macrophylla are edible.

Distribution

Plants of this species grow in open and secondary forests along the upper Gangetic plains, West Bengal Plains, Eastern and Western Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam, and northern Andhra Pradesh up to an altitude of 1800 meters. The species grows in other places worldwide, such as Nepal, Indonesia, China and South Korea.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Madagascar and spread to India, Indonesia, Indo-China, Philippines, South Africa, Israel, USA and other parts of the world.

• In India, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Assam are the major states that cultivate periwinkle.

• USA - world’s largest user as raw material.

• Germany, Italy, Netherlands and the UK are interested in roots.

2.2. Economic importance

• Economic parts: Leaves, stem and roots

• Used as an abortificent, purgative, antidiabetic, diuretic, hemorrhagic antimalarial, antidysentric and against skin diseases

Sphingid larva: Dilephila nerii :Sphingidae

The large larvae cause severe damage to plants by feeding extensively on leaves, buds and flowers.They are very big and can easily be hand picked and killed or fed to poultry.

Scientific name: Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don
Family: Apocyanaceae
Catharanthus roseus (Vinca rosea)is a perennial flowering plant in the family Apocyanaceae. It is commonly known as Cape periwinkle, Madagascar periwinkle or graveyard plant etc. Periwinkle is an extensively investigatedmedicinal plant after the discovery of powerful anticancer alkaloids such as Vinblastine and Vincristine, in its leaves more than 50 years ago. These alkaloids have revolutionized  cancer treatment and saved countless lives worldwide. Today, Catharanthus roseus remains a vital source of inspirationfor cancer research and drug development.
Origin and distribution
Periwinkle is native and endemic to Madagascar. However, it is now cultivated and grown in many tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including the southern United States, West Indies, and several states in India, such as Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat. Unfortunately, the plant is endangered in its natural habitat due to habitat destruction and burn and slash agriculture.
Botany
Periwinkle is a perennial herb belonging to the Apocynaceae family. It is a popular ornamental plant, often grown in gardens for its attractive pink and white flowers that bloom throughout the year. The plant has a spreading habit, with flexible, long branches that bear simple, opposite leaves. These leaves are elliptical to ovate in shape, measuring 2.5-5 cm in length and 1-2 cm in width, with a glossy, dark green appearance and a pointed tip.

Popularly known as Japanese, or Oriental, persimmon, it is also called kaki (in Spanish, caqui), Chinese plum or, Chinese fig when dried, belongs to the family Ebanaceae. The tree is native to Japan, China, Burma and the Himalayas and Khasi Hills of northeastern India.

Uses

Fully ripe Japanese persimmons are usually eaten out-of-hand or cut in half and served with a spoon. The flesh may be added to salads, blended with ice cream mix or yogurt, used in pancakess, cakes, gingerbread, cookies, gelatin desserts, puddings, mousse, or made into jam or marmalade. The pureed pulp can be blended with cream cheese, orange juice, honey and a pinch of salt to make an unusual dressing.

Persimmons are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The genus contains nearly 400 species including the horticulturally important, Diospyros kaki, D. virginiana and D. lotus. The persimmon cultivated mainly for fruit is D. kaki, which is called the Japanese persimmon, Oriental persimmon, or simply Kaki. The generic name is derived from the Greek ‘dios’ (meaning divine) and ‘pyros’ (meaning grain of wheat), referring to the excellent fruit of the genus. The specific name kaki is from the Japanese common name given by Carl Peter Thunberg (1743–1828), a Swedish naturalist and medical doctor, and a pupil of Linnaeus. He stayed in Japan from 1775 to 1776 and published “Flora Japonica” in 1784 introducing many Japanese plants.