eChapters

The pear or naspati (Pyrus spp) is a popular temperature fruit next to apples. It ranks high among sub-acid fruits as it contains less acid than almost any other fruit. Pear belongs to the genus Pyrus under the family Rosaceae and sub- family Pomoideae. The European pear (Pyrus communis) with a persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels and pyriform shape is different from Pyrus pyrifolia or Pyrus serotina (Asiatic pears) and are non-fleshy pedicels with apple shape.

It has been used as a food from time immemorial. The pear is a wholesome fruit and at par in importance with the apple. The flesh of the pear is, however, slightly harder than the apple, but it is juicier than the apple. Like the apple, it has few seeds. It grows on a comparatively large tree. It has generally yellow and brown colour. Sometimes, there is also a tint of red. It has several several varieties across the world.

It originated in mountainous reach of western China. The major pear producing countries are Italy, USA, Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Turkey and Australia. In India, it is mainly grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh.

Cultivars: In India, Bartlett is widely grown in Kashmir. Kieffer, a cross between Pyrus communis and Pyrus pyrifolia, is popular in South India. In Punjab, the popular varieties ar Patharnakh, Le Conte, Smith and Kieffer.

The pecan is one of the important nut crops of the world occupying fifth position among the tree nuts. It is one of the most valuable nuts and a gift of North America to the whole world. In USA, it is considered as “Queen of nuts” because of its value as wild and cultivated crop. Besides USA, pecan cultivation is being done in Australia, Canada, Egypt, India, Israel, Mexico, Morocco, Peru, Turkey and South Africa. Pecan is under cultivation only for the last about 100 years but gained enormous popularity as compared to other nut fruits which are growing since time immemorial.

In India, pecan cultivation was introduced in  1935 at Government Fruit Farm, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh. Some of the pecan plants also exist at Jardari orchard, Kandaghat, Distt. Solan and this plant material was probably introduced from California during 1950 by the erstwhile Maharaja of Patiala. It’s introduction to Uttrakhand dates back to mid fifties when Dr. Boshisen, the founder of Vivekanand Laboratory planted a few saplings of pecan at Hawalbagh in Almora hills.

Pollu beetle: Longitarsus nigripennis:Chrysomelidae

This pest is monophagous to pepper and no alternate host has been reported so far.

Nature of Damage

Adult is a shining blue flea beetle with yellow head and thorax and has thick enlarged femur and tibia. The adult beetle is only the size of a pin head.  The infested berries dry up and turn dark in colour. Berries become hollow and crumble when pressed and such hollow berries are called “Pollu” meaning empty. The eggs are laid on the berries @ 1-2 eggs in each hole. Eggs hatch in 5-8 days. The grub period extends for 30-32 days. The emerging grubs feed on the berries of pepper and consume the internal contents.

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS

2.1 Mango
 

Mango is considered to be an allopolyploid. The chromosome number is 2n =40. The polyembryonic seedlings of cv. Vellaikolumban, earlier reported to be 2n= 80 was later shown to be a diploid. In Canary Island, a putative tetraploid viz Gomera-1 has been identified.

Floral biology

Flower starts opening early in the morning from 4-7 a.m. and maximum flowers open between 9.30-10.30 a.m. and complete 11 a.m. Dehiscence of anthers takes place at 11.30 a.m. and it continues up to 3.45 p.m. The pollen grains are oval, or triangular or oblong. Stigma becomes receptive even 18 hours before flower opening. Mode of pollination is entomophily; nectar is present to attract the insects.

The flowering duration is usually of short i.e. 2 to 3 weeks. The mango inflorescence or panicle bears mainly two types of flowers - male and perfect. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000 to 6000 depending upon the variety and climatic factors. The percentage of perfect flowers varies between 0.74 per cent in Rumani, 16.41 to 55.7 per cent in Neelum and up to 69.8 per cent in Langra.

ABSTRACT

Astudy was undertaken to evaluate the performance of tissue culture derived plants vis a vis open pollinated seedlings of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton). A total of 102.5 ha (units) covering 50 ha in Kerala, 37.5 ha in Karnataka and 15 ha in Tamil Nadu was selected for the present study out of which each demonstration plot (unit) had an area of one hectare in which 80% of the plants are tissue cultured and 20% are open pollinated. Elite cardamom clones were subjected to in vitro multiplication and their respective open pollinated seedlings were compared. The planting was initiated in 1989 and completed with 1991 in all the zones identified. Plant growth characters such as number of tillers, number of bearing tillers and panicles per clump were recorded and compared. The yield was recorded in 1993-94 and 94-95 seasons after its stabilisation. Results indicated that tissue culture plants performed better compared to open pollinated seedlings with regard to growth attributes and yield irrespective of the seasons and zones. In Kerala region tissue culture plants exhibited a yield increase of 24.3 and 36% over open pollinated seedlings for the 1989 and 1990 plantings respectively. Similar trend was observed in Tamil Nadu for 1989 and 1990 planting where the percentage increase in yield became 130 and 21 respectively. In Kerala, the yield performance of tissue culture plants and open pollinated seedlings was on par during 1990 planting but in the subsequent year (1991) tissue culture plants showed 24% increase in yield compared to their respective open pollinated ones. Further, the study enabled to identify cardamom clones suited to in various zones of the cardamom tract. Accordingly 14 clones with a yield potential of over 750 kg/ha under moderate management were identified and this indicated that cardamom clones are highly location specific in their performance.

The effect of oil sludge on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea (L.) were evaluated using four levels of pollution viz: 0%; 0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75% of the 6kg soil and three levels of N.P.K. fertilizer (20:10:10) viz: low level (0.005 kg), normal level (0.01 kg) and high level (0.015kg). These treatments were imposed after the soil analysis were carried out on the site.  The results obtained show that pollution has a significant effect (P < 0.05) on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea, despite the different levels of fertilizer application with second level of pollution (0.25%) being the critical point. Thus, pollution retards the growth of this crop drastically beyond the critical level with Celosia argentea showing more tolerance to pollution at the post-application treatment than the pre-application treatment.

It is therefore suggested that land users should not embark on cultivating land that has an oil sludge pollution level beyond 0.25% of soil.

2.1 Introduction

Perfumery, the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. The history of perfume began in antiquity. The word perfume is used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, “per fumum”, meaning through smoke. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. The world’s first recorded perfume maker Tapputi was mentioned in a Cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. Perfume and perfumery also existed in India. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic Charaka Samhita. The Bible describes a sacred perfume, consisting of liquid myrrh, fragrant cinnamon and cassia. In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6^th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. Al-Kindi in the 9^th century wrote a book on perfumes entitled ‘Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations’ that has more than hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs.

French author Jean Giono once remarked, “The God creates the Odours, but the men manufacture the perfumes”. In today’s world, fragrances play bigger role than just being associated with a tiny bottle of liquid. It now serves the larger purpose of linking itself with anything you can imagine, from soaps to your favourite sweater knitted by your grandmother (Biswas, 2012). In the modern day, these products find their applications in items for personal sophistication to culinary delights and beverages, to a host of industrial products (Dev, 1993). India, a country known for its vast range of fragrant flowers and herbs, has used extracts from such raw material to produce incense sticks, medicines, body massage oils and sweet savouries.

The word ‘perfume’ is derived from the Latin term ‘perfumen’, meaning ‘through smoke’. Perfume is a fragrant liquid mainly distilled from natural oils, aromatic chemicals and resinoids; cologne is a lightly scented liquid used to cool the skin and deodorant contains chemicals to counter offensive body odour. Perfume is basically used by women, cologne by men and deodorant by both (Saha and Sareen, 1997). Throughout antiquity there was a continuous demand for incense, to mark the rites of scenting passage from birth to the grave, for the daily rituals of incensing rooms, linen and clothing. The South Asian synonym for perfume, ‘attar’, on the other hand, is derived from the Arabic word ‘aettr’ meaning ‘fat’ or ‘extract’. Almost all attars are basically aromatic oils extracted from flowers, plants and herbs through steam distillation. Some fragile flowers and oils that can not stand the heat of distillation are, however, crushed and the oil expelled by mechanical force (Mahmud, 1992).

Morphological characteristics

The plant is an erect undershrub, 1.5–2.5 m tall. Leaves are elliptic-oblong to lanceolate or ovate to ovate–lanceolate, 12–25 × 5–11 cm, acute or acuminate at apex, acute or cuneate at base, glabrescent, crenate-dentate; densely stellate–tomentose beneath; petiole 4–12 mm long; Fruits globose, drupes or berries, white to yellowish-brown with or without fruit stalk, fresh being succulent, 1–3 mm in dia. Intact fruits are smooth and brownish in colour and exhibit centrally located bilocular carpel and 4 nutlets each embedded with a yellowish white seed, in a transversely cut surface of a fruit;

Floral characteristics

Flowers appear in July-November are small, 0.5 cm long, pink in colour and crowded in axillary peduncled globose cymes, solitary, pedunculate or sessile. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic and fragrant. Calyx 4 or rarely 5 toothed, pubescent, corolla infundibular, 4 or rarely 5 lobed. Stamens are 4, exserted, anthers oblong 2 loculed, dorsifixed. Ovary is superior, 4 lobed, 4 loculed, 1 ovule in each locule, style short, stigma 2 lobed. Flowering & fruiting occurs during June–Dec. Fruits when tasted at first are somewhat sweet, later bitterish; fruit has fragrant odour specially after slight bruising the fruit. The fruits of Callicarpa macrophylla are edible.

Distribution

Plants of this species grow in open and secondary forests along the upper Gangetic plains, West Bengal Plains, Eastern and Western Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam, and northern Andhra Pradesh up to an altitude of 1800 meters. The species grows in other places worldwide, such as Nepal, Indonesia, China and South Korea.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Madagascar and spread to India, Indonesia, Indo-China, Philippines, South Africa, Israel, USA and other parts of the world.

• In India, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Assam are the major states that cultivate periwinkle.

• USA - world’s largest user as raw material.

• Germany, Italy, Netherlands and the UK are interested in roots.

2.2. Economic importance

• Economic parts: Leaves, stem and roots

• Used as an abortificent, purgative, antidiabetic, diuretic, hemorrhagic antimalarial, antidysentric and against skin diseases

Sphingid larva: Dilephila nerii :Sphingidae

The large larvae cause severe damage to plants by feeding extensively on leaves, buds and flowers.They are very big and can easily be hand picked and killed or fed to poultry.

Scientific name: Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don
Family: Apocyanaceae
Catharanthus roseus (Vinca rosea)is a perennial flowering plant in the family Apocyanaceae. It is commonly known as Cape periwinkle, Madagascar periwinkle or graveyard plant etc. Periwinkle is an extensively investigatedmedicinal plant after the discovery of powerful anticancer alkaloids such as Vinblastine and Vincristine, in its leaves more than 50 years ago. These alkaloids have revolutionized  cancer treatment and saved countless lives worldwide. Today, Catharanthus roseus remains a vital source of inspirationfor cancer research and drug development.
Origin and distribution
Periwinkle is native and endemic to Madagascar. However, it is now cultivated and grown in many tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including the southern United States, West Indies, and several states in India, such as Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat. Unfortunately, the plant is endangered in its natural habitat due to habitat destruction and burn and slash agriculture.
Botany
Periwinkle is a perennial herb belonging to the Apocynaceae family. It is a popular ornamental plant, often grown in gardens for its attractive pink and white flowers that bloom throughout the year. The plant has a spreading habit, with flexible, long branches that bear simple, opposite leaves. These leaves are elliptical to ovate in shape, measuring 2.5-5 cm in length and 1-2 cm in width, with a glossy, dark green appearance and a pointed tip.

Popularly known as Japanese, or Oriental, persimmon, it is also called kaki (in Spanish, caqui), Chinese plum or, Chinese fig when dried, belongs to the family Ebanaceae. The tree is native to Japan, China, Burma and the Himalayas and Khasi Hills of northeastern India.

Uses

Fully ripe Japanese persimmons are usually eaten out-of-hand or cut in half and served with a spoon. The flesh may be added to salads, blended with ice cream mix or yogurt, used in pancakess, cakes, gingerbread, cookies, gelatin desserts, puddings, mousse, or made into jam or marmalade. The pureed pulp can be blended with cream cheese, orange juice, honey and a pinch of salt to make an unusual dressing.

Persimmons are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The genus contains nearly 400 species including the horticulturally important, Diospyros kaki, D. virginiana and D. lotus. The persimmon cultivated mainly for fruit is D. kaki, which is called the Japanese persimmon, Oriental persimmon, or simply Kaki. The generic name is derived from the Greek ‘dios’ (meaning divine) and ‘pyros’ (meaning grain of wheat), referring to the excellent fruit of the genus. The specific name kaki is from the Japanese common name given by Carl Peter Thunberg (1743–1828), a Swedish naturalist and medical doctor, and a pupil of Linnaeus. He stayed in Japan from 1775 to 1776 and published “Flora Japonica” in 1784 introducing many Japanese plants.

Introduction

Humans are able to live and work in almost all the environmental extremes of the planet earth and also in space due to their remarkable physiological adaptability and/or by modification of environment itself. Adequate nutrition plays a key role in adaptation and accordingly nutritional needs vary to a great extent. Nutraceutical, a term combining the words “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical”, is a food or food product that provides health and medical benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary supplements and specific diets to genetically engineered foods, herbal products, and processed foods such as cereals, soups, and beverages. Nutraceutical is a broad umbrella term used to describe any product derived from food sources that provides extra health benefits in addition to the basic nutritional value found in foods. Products typically claim to prevent chronic diseases, improve health, delay the aging process, and increase life expectancy. Phytochemical profile in important crops such as ber, aonla, pomegranate, date palm, karoda, bael, aloe vera, cactus pear of arid region have been indicated that there is wide variation among primary and secondary metabolites. Thus it has become imperative to look into markers linked to high contents of bioactive compounds rather than size and sweetness of the fruits during exploration and evaluation of the plant germplasm.

Introduction

Agriculture in general and horticulture in particular are highly vulnerable to year-to-year climatic variability. Farmers and other decision makers in agriculture make decisions based on their understanding of general climatic patterns for their regions. Crops are constantly threatened by pests such as insects and nematodes, as well as diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and other micro-organisms. However, depending on weather conditions, the severity is very variable from year to year and often control strategies are applied without considering the climatic variability. Moreover, following the global climate change predictions, meteorological conditions triggering pest population/disease infection cycles are destined to increase, leading to consequent increase of the pests/diseases pressure. Sustainable plant protection strategies rely on weather and climate related pest and disease forecasting models in order to:

1. Introduction

Over the centuries, the use of medicinal herbs has become an important part of daily life despite the progress in modern medical and pharmaceuticals research. It is estimated that 40% of the world populations depends directly on plant based medicine. India is one of the world’s 12 biodiversity centres. Herbal industry in India uses about 8000 medicinal plants. Indian export of raw drugs has steadily grown at 26% to Rs.165 crores in 1994-’95 from Rs.130 crores in 1991-’92 and this is likely to touch US $5 trillion by 2050. Thus, India has a great role to play, as supplier of herbal products not only to meet the domestic needs, but also to take advantage of the tremendous export potential.

Biotic stress related problems are important bottlenecks for the successful commercial cultivation of any crop. Medicinal plants are not the exception and are vulnerable to be attacked by several pests and pathogens resulting crop loss in terms of both quantity as well as quality. Therefore, the “health of these healthy plants” should be concerned. Without proper identification and prior knowledge of the pests and diseases, the management will be a waste of time and money and can lead to further plant losses.

Pesticides are an undeniable part of modern life, used to protect everything from flower gardens to agricultural crops from specific pests. Pesticides have contributed significantly to improving quality of life and safeguarding the environment. Some 20 to 40 percent of the world’s potential crop production is already lost annually because of the effects of weeds, pests and diseases (according to the FAO reports) (www.CropLifeAmerica.mht). In addition to increasing crop yields, crop protection products used in stored products can also prolong the viable life of products, prevent huge post-harvest losses from pests and diseases and protect food safety for eating.

India is the world’s second largest producer of fruits, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota, aonla, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub-tropical parts and peach, pear, almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the temperate parts are also grown in a sizeable area. Date palm and fig cultivation is also finding favour in some areas. The major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

Production of fruits in India is 44.04 million tones from an area of 3.72 million hectares. One of the bottlenecks in fruit production is the losses incurred by insect pest and diseases which necessitated the use of pesticides to curb the pest problem. Use of pesticides in India is very low 0.350–0.5 kg/hectare as compared to 7.0 kg/hectare in USA, 2.5 kg/hectare in Europe, 12 kg/hectare in Japan and 6.6 kg/hectare in Korea. Despite of low pesticide consumption in India, there is a great problem of pesticide residues vis-a-vis other countries and these residues have entered into food products and underground water because of non-prescribed use of chemical pesticides, wrong advice and supply of pesticides to farmers by vested interests, non-observance of prescribed waiting period, pre-marketing pesticide treatments during storage and transport, use of sub-standard pesticides, effluents from pesticide manufacturing units, continued use of persistent pesticides for public health programme, lack of awareness and lack of aggressive educational programmes for farmers/consumers.

Spices are defined as “A strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “Any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. The word “spice” came from the Latin word “species,” meaning specific kind. The name reflects the fact that all plant parts have been cultivated for their aromatic fragrant, pungent or any other desirable properties including the seed (aniseed, caraway, coriander), leaf (cilantro, kari, bay, mint), berry (allspice, juniper, black pepper), bark (cinnamon), kernel (nutmeg), aril (mace), stem (chives), stalk (lemongrass), rhizome (ginger, turmeric, galangal), root (lovage, horse radish), flower (saffron), bulb (garlic, onion), fruit (star anise, cardamom, chile pepper) and flower bud (clove). Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purpose. Herbs, such as a basil or orengano, may be used fresh and are commonly chopped in to smaller pieces; spices however are dried and usually ground in to a powder (Anonymous, 2007).

In ancient times, spices were as precious as gold, and as significant as medicines, preservatives and perfumes. India is known as the home of spices and produces a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom (small and large), ginger, garlic, turmeric, chilli and a large variety of tree and seed spices. These have nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. They are good not only for our taste buds but also for our health. They have medicinal properties and also used as preservatives. Spices are well known appetizers, digestives and considered essential in culinary art all over the world. Some of them have antioxidant properties, while others possess strong antimicrobial and antibiotic activities. Spices increase the secretion of saliva rich in ptyalin, which facilitates starch digestion in the stomach, rendering the meals, which are rich in carbohydrates, more digestible. They inhibit thrombus formation and accelerate thromobolysis (Anonymous, 2007a).

The noun vegetable means an edible plant or part of a plant, but usually excludes seeds and most sweet fruits. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant. Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein or fat (Woodruff,1995 and Whitaker, 2001) and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, provitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates. They contain a great variety of other phytochemicals, some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticarcinogenic properties (Gruda, 2005; Steinmetz and Potter,1996). Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function. Some contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well. However, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients such as á-solanine, á-chaconine,(Science direct) enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, and more (Bad Bug Bock > BBB–Clostridium botulinum). Depending on the concentration, such compounds may reduce the edibility, nutritional value, and health benefits of dietary vegetables. Cooking and/or other processing may be necessary to eliminate or reduce them. Diets containing recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables may help to lower the risk of heart diseases and two type of diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss. The potassium provided by vegetables may help to prevent the formation of kidney stones.

Abstract

Tea (Camellia sinensis L. O. Kuntze), a foliage crop of Sub-Himalayan Terai-Dooars has Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora)(TMB), looper caterpillars [Hyposidra talaca, Hyposidra infixaria, Biston (=Buzura) suppresseria] and Red spider mite (Oligonychus coffeae)(RSM) as major pests. In conventionally managed tea plantations, synthetic pesticides and acaricides are routinely applied. The pesticide-exposed pest populations show higher tolerance level as evident in their increased LC50 values. Augmented activities of detoxifying enzymes viz. general esterases (GE), glutathione S–transferases (GST) and cytochrome P450 mediated monooxygenases (CYP) were recorded in the pesticide-exposed pest populations. Sub–lethal exposure to monocrotophos (36% SL) enhanced the tolerance level in adult TMB by 105 fold through three generations. Increased activity of GE was evident in the pesticide-exposed populations of the tea loopers. Activities of GE and GST  in RSM were significantly higher in acaricide-exposed population. Present studies can help developing enzyme-based assay kit for determining level of pesticide-resistance. Integrated resistance management has become an integral part of modern day IPM practices. Adoption of newer chemicals, and cultural practices can minimise synthetic pesticide applications, thereby help reducing resistance development in pests.

Slugs and snails occasionally cause serious damage to seedlings, tender, lowgrowing leafy vegetables; or ripening fruit that are on the ground. Feeding damage, hollowed-out areas, can be found anywhere on fruit, but is usually concentrated near the stem. Slugs leave a tell tale slime trail (silvery trail) behind on the surface of fruit or leaves.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the most important commercial crops of India. The crop is grown on commercial scale in coastal Maharashtra and other states of the country. The main reason for the low productivity is the pest incidence. The insect pests cause crop loss ranging from 30 to 40 per cent in cashew (Satapathy, 1993). Keeping in view, the strategy of increasing production, one of the important aspects is to develop technologies to save the crop from the pest incidences.

Cashew is attacked by around 180 species of insect and non-insect pests in India resulting in substantial yield loss (Sundararaju, 1993b). Godse et al. (2004) reported over 58 species of insects and pests on cashew crop in the Kokan region of Maharashtra region. The infestations of insect pests have been identified as one of the major factor responsible for low productivity. The most important pests that limit production are the cashew stem and borer (CSRB) and the tea mosquito bug (TMB). In addition, leaf and blossom webber, shoot tip caterpillar, and apple and nut borer cause damage. Recently, apple and nut borer and leaf miner are emerging as major pests and they also occasionally becoming serious in some orchards.

11.1. Tea

11.1.1. Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis theivora

Symptoms

• Adults and nymphs suck sap from buds, young leaves and tender stems.

• Punctures appear as reddish brown spots.

• Leaves curl up, badly deformed and shoots dry up.

Management

• Spray clothianidin 50 WDG 120 g/ha or thiacloprid 21.7 SC 375 ml/ha or thiamethoxam 25 WG 100g/ha or bifenthrin 8 SC 500 ml/ha.

7.1. Pepper

7.1.1. Pollu beetle: Longitarsus nigripennis

Symptoms

• Grub feeds on growing tip, tender stem, leaf petiole, spikes and berry.

• Tunneling of tender stem causes drying up of shoot.

• Spikes tunneled by grubs turn black and cause dropping of spikes due to rotting.

• Grubs bore into the berries and feed on entire internal contents.

• Exit holes could be seen on dry berries and turn dark - called ’Pollu’ berries.

Abstract

Tea, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, is a perennial crop and grown as a monoculture on large contiguous areas in India. Being a plantation crop, tea provides a relatively stable microclimate and food supply for several notorious pests such as insects, mites, nematodes which cause substantial loss of foliage. However, region-wide variation in faunal diversity exists as a result of autochthonous and heterochthonous recruitment and the influence of climate, altitude and age of the plantation. This publication provides the details on pest information (identification, crop damage, alternate hosts, pest life cycle) and their possible management strategies. On account of complex pest situations, total avoidance of pesticides in tea is not possible; although due to the sensitive nature of the crop pesticide use must be minimal. A tentative IPM strategy for tea cultivation in India has been proposed in this paper which may ensure low – cost, eco-compatible, pest management package with minimal residue problems.

Phalsa belongs to the family Tiliaceae where only one genus, Grewia, yields edible fruit. The only species of any importance is G. subinaequalis DC. (syns. G. asiatica Mast), long referred to in literature as Grewia asiatica L. Phalsa is the most used vernacular name in India, where there are a number of local names. The plant is called falsa in Pakistan. Phalsa is commercially cultivated in India in states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Cultivars/Varieties: Two distinct types, viz. Tall and Dwarf were recognized in Hisar and dwarf type was found to be more productive. Some call them as ‘Local’ and ‘Sharbati’.

Uses

The fruits are eaten fresh as dessert, are made into syrup, and extensively employed in the manufacture of soft drinks. The fruit is used in making juice and squash. The bark is used as a soap substitute in Burma. A mucilaginous extract of the bark is useful in clarifying sugar. Fiber extracted from the bark is made into rope. The wood is yellow-white, fine-grained, strong and flexible. It is used for archers’ bows, spear handles, shingles and poles for carrying loads on the shoulders. Stems that are pruned off serve as garden poles and for basket-making.

Genetics forms the basis of human life. All individuals have a physical and physiological self, determined by the interactions of genes and environment. Pharmacogenetics is the connotation used to study how heritability affects an individual’s response to drugs.494 The term ‘Pharmacogenomics’ represents systematic identification of all human genes, their products, interindividual variation and intraindividual variation in expression and function over time. It focuses on candidate genes and may include transcriptome and proteome information that affect drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. It helps in predicting the patient’s response to a drug and to design new drugs495. Pharmacogenetics is study of single genes and the effects on drug response while pharmacogenomics is related to overall variation in genome. A gene is considered polymorphic when a mutation appears in more than 1% population, which may be present in the form of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), simple sequence length polymorphism (SSLP) and nucleotide addition or deletion. After the Human Genome Project, study in this field is accelerated dramatically. It was found that out of 1.4 million SNPs identified in the human genome, over 60,000 are present in the coding region496. These SNPs lead to miscoding of the various proteins that plays crucial role in the biological processes. If a point mutation is present in the gene coding region for various drug-metabolizing enzymes, drug target and drug transporters, it can lead to many non-therapeutic and unpredictable drug responses. In United States, over two million people suffer from severe adverse drug reactions per year and about 100,000 cases are life threatening497.

Abstract

Asteraceae is one of the largest family of flowering plants and have been used by mankind for a variety of purposes including food, medicine, cooking oils, sweeteners and tea infusions. In India, Asteraceae is 4^th largest family of angiosperms and ranked third among dominant families of angiosperms in Arunachal Pradesh. The indigenous communities of Arunachal Pradesh possess a rich knowledge on utilization of the plant resources around them for food, fodder, medicine and other purposes. Due to the remoteness and inaccessibility, the indigenous communities are mostly depended on their traditional medicines using plant resources around them for treating minor and major ailments. The effectiveness of these plants in traditional medicine has also been confirmed after isolation and characterization of the bioactive compounds responsible for their pharmacological activities. The present study is a review on ethnomedicinal plants belonging to Asteraceae family that are being used by different tribes of the state. The tribal communities have been using 36 medicinal plant species from this family as recorded from published literature and field study. Maximum number of species have been found to exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihelminthic, analgesic and anti-malarial properties. Among the recorded species, Ageratum conyzoides, Spilanthes acmella, Artemisia nilagirica, A. maritima, Blumea balsamifera, B. lacera, Eclipta prostrata, Vernonia cinerea and Chrysanthemum indicum were already being used in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Folk and Sowa-Rigpa systems of Indian Medicine. Therefore, the study highlighted the pharmacological potential of ethnomedicinal plantsfrom Asteraceae family which would provide opportunities for future drugdiscovery.

4.1 Phases of technology transfer
To translate laboratory research into market ready product, it is important to understand steps or phases involved in this technology transfer process. The process typically includes six main phases, each with a different role (figure 9).
4.1.1 Research
Technology transfer begins with research, the critical stage of exploring and discovering novel knowledge, technologies, or innovations that may have potential commercial applications. The research phase can occur in academic institutions, research organizations, or private sector companies, often funded by public or private sources. Thorough research ensures that the technologies being transitioned are scientifically and technically robust, thereby increasing their potential for market success. Therefore, the research phase involves creating and evaluating new ideas, confirming their feasibility, and identifying IP prospects, all of which are key components of TT success.
4.1.2 Innovation disclosure
Innovation disclosure is the first formal step where the innovation is reported to the appropriate TTO or IP management team. This process ensures that the institution or organization recognizes the innovation and evaluates its potential for protection and commercialization. It includes following information:

ABSTRACT

Phosphorus is a macro nutrient, acts as a limiting factor in most ecosystems. Phosphorus immobilization is a major issue in most agricultural soils of India. Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) help in the solubilization of insoluble mineral phosphates by the production of organic acids. The aim of this research was to isolate, identify and characterize phosphate solubilizing bacteria from different agricultural crop soils of river banks of Yamuna, Delhi. Experiments were established in the laboratory to isolate phosphate solubilizing bacteria from various soil samples. Biochemical tests were performed to identify and characterize phosphate solubilizing bacteria. The phosphate solubilization efficiency of bacteria was measured. Organic acid production by different PSB for solubilization of insoluble phosphates were estimated. PSB from the soils of four agricultural crops such as Fennel, Spinach, Coriander and Mustard were isolated, identified and their ability to solubilize mineral phosphates by the production of organic acids were studied. Different PSB isolated were characterized as Citrobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus sp. and Bacillus sp. The PSB varied in phosphate solubilizing efficiency and production of organic acids. Pseudomonas sp. produced the maximum amount of organic acids and hence was the most efficient PSB. These PSB can be used as biofertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers and lead to sustainable agriculture.

The common acid " debility" is very marked in this remedy, producing a nervous exhaustion. Mental debility first, later physical. A congenital soil for the action of Phos. Acid is found in young people who grow rapidly, and who are overtaxed, mentally or physically. It is useful when the body is exposed to acute diseases, excesses grief, loss of vital fluids. Useful in relieving pain of cancer.

An excellent use of phosphoric Acidum is made in curing mental and physical debility and in acute and chronic diseases where the patient is tired in mind and body. The mental debility is a result of nervous exhaustion in persons who have been working overtime at a young age. Physical debility comes as a result of acute disease, sexual excesses, grief, and loss of vital fluids from the body. Haemorrhages in typhoid, therefore require Phosphoric Acidum.

Phosphorus irritates, inflames and degenerates mucous membranes, irritates, and inflames serous membranes, inflames spinal cord and nerves, causing paralysis, destroys bone, especially the lower jaw and tibia; disorganizes the blood, causing fatty degeneration of blood vessels and every tissue and organs of the body and thus gives rise to haemorrhages.

Produces a picture of destructive metabolism. Causes yellow atrophy of the liver and sub-acute hepatitis. Tall, slender persons, narrow chested, with thin, transparent skin, weakened by loss of animal fluids, with great nervous debility, emaciation seems to be under the special influence of Phosphorus. Great susceptibility to external impressions, to light, sound, odors, touch, thunderstorms. Polycythaemia, fatty degeneration, cirrhosis, and caries are pathological states calling for this remedy, inflammations of the respiratory tract. Paralytic symptoms. Ill effects of iodine and excessive use of salt, worse lying on left side.

The first indication for Phosphorus is given by an intense sensation of burning in various parts of the body like the mouth, the lungs, the stomach, the small intestines, the anus, up the spine, the palm of the hand, and even the face. The patient craves for cold food, but this food is vomited as soon as it reaches the stomach. There is an insatiable hunger, an empty gone feeling in the stomach, in the whole abdomen.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in Tropical America

• Distributed in all tropical and sub-tropical regions

9.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and hypophyllanthin

• Antioxidant with free radical scavenging properties due to presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase.

• Effective in treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc.

• Treatment of Hepatitis B and j aundice

Fruits, the vivid and delightful offerings of the nature, undergo remarkable transformations as they travel from the orchard to our dining tables. These changes indicate the significance of post-harvest physiology, which is the scientific study that reveals the secrets of how fruits behave after they are picked, including the mechanisms that affect fruit quality and how long it may be stored. The next section provides definitions of the various stages and key players involved in the processes of fruit maturity, ripening, and post harvest physiology. These topics will be further explored in the subsequent sub-sections of this chapter.

Fruit developmental physiology

The life cycle of horticultural commodities (fruits and vegetables) can be effectively categorized into three primary physiological stages after fruit set or initiation, namely growth, maturation, and senescence. Still, a lack of obvious differentiation exists among the several stages. Growth encompasses the process of cell division followed by cell enlargement, which determines the ultimate size of the product. Maturation typically begins prior to the cessation of growth and involves various activities across different commodities. The stages of growth and maturity are commonly denoted as the developmental phase. Senescence can be described as the phase in which anabolic biochemical processes transition into catabolic processes, resulting in the ageing and eventual demise of the tissue. Ripening, a term specifically used for fruit, is typically regarded as the initial phase of senescence that occurs during the later phases of development. Defining the transition from growth to senescence is rather straightforward.

The production of fruit crops is largely dependent on the environmental conditions and nutritional status of the plants. Any alteration in the environmental conditions and nutritional status may results in different physiological disorders which affect the growth of the plants and also the quantity as well as quality of the fruits. The precise and early recognition of physiological disorders is important for the timely adaptation of remedial strategies to reduce the crop loss. Physiological disorders in fruits crops may be due to single factors or multiple factors may be involved in the appearance of physiological disorders. A sound knowledge about the cause of physiological disorder is useful to adopt suitable remedy for the disorder.

Introduction

The abnormal growth behavior or unusual external and/or internal conditions of fruits which results due to adverse environmental conditions and nutritional imbalances are considered as physiological disorders. Physiological disorder is best defined as external or internal malfunctioning resulting from improper environmental or cultural conditions before and/or after harvest. Variation from normal temperature, light, moisture, nutrient, harmful gases, insufficient supply of growth regulators, deficiencies or excesses of nutrient etc. are some of the important environmental and cultural factors of physiological disorders (Fig. 1). Physiological disorders affect the quality as well as quantity of the fruit crops. Detection of precise physiological disorders is not easy and requires a strong knowledge regarding them.

Physiological disorders are abnormalities in plants which are associated to non-pathogenic factors. A plant or its parts may show unusual growth, function or deformity. Such abnormalities are widely referred to as disorders. These may be incited by nutrients deficiency or excess, hormonal imbalance, abnormal growing conditions etc. Some commonly observed disorders have been dealt in here suitably.

Fruit ripening is a phenomena during which horticulture produce undergoes a series of complex physical and biochemical changes initiated through a series of hormones (Ethylene, auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellins, jasmonic acid, etc.) to attain maximum physiological maturity and favourable organoleptic properties. These changes lead to alterations in colour, texture, aroma, flavour and nutrient composition. In a nut shell, ripening involves increase in pulp to peel ratio, solubilisation of pectic substances, degradation of complex carbohydrates, organic acids and chlorophyll, accumulation sugars, flavour volatiles, polyphenolic compounds and pigments (carotenoids, xanthophylls and anthocynanins). The extent of these changes guide harvesting, readiness for processing and consumption decisions, with physic-chemical alterations serving as indicators of optimum ripeness. Respiration rate, ethylene and ABA are key regulators of fruit ripening in climacteric and non-climacteric fruits, respectively. In climacteric fruits, ABA interacts with ethylene, influencing the synthesis of ethylene itself. Although there is ample documentation on the involvement of hormones in fruit development and ripening, our understanding of the functions of various hormones throughout growth, maturation, and specific ripening processes remains incomplete.

In general terms, dormancy can be defined as a period during the biological cycle of the plant in which growth of the whole organism (seed) or a plant organ (bud, tuber, corm etc.) is suspended eventhough the environmental conditions for growth may be favourable. More specifically, dormancy refers to a condition in which growth is inhibited by a restriction of essential metabolic processes, such as water uptake, gas exchange and cell division, either as a result of endogenous dormancy-controlling factors or in response to exogenous factors such as changes in the environment. It is distinct from a transient state of quiescence or rest imposed by an unfavourable environment in that dormancy persists even when the environment becomes favourable for growth whereas quiescence ceases.

For wild plants, dormancy has evolved as a means of enabling the plant to endure periods of stress due to drought or low temperatures and is therefore critical for the survival of the species. In cultivated arable or vegetable crops, breeding has generally led to a loss of dormancy or a reduction in the length of the dormant period. In arboreal crops of temperate climates, however, bud dormancy is still an essential feature of the annual growth cycle of the tree.

Growth: Growth involve cell division subsequently cell elongation. Increase in volume that is associated with fruit growth largely result of cell division or cell elongation or both. In some fruit such as apple, extension of intercellular space may also contribute the growth. Generally growth by cell division in early stage whereas, cell elongation during later stage.

Two distinct type of growth curve are observed when increase in such variable such as fresh weight, volume and dry weight of fruit.

1. Single sigmoid curve
2. Double sigmoid curve

In case of single sigmoid growth curve firstly there is rapid increase in size then after decline so there is only one rapid growth is observed e.g. Apple, pear, tomato, cucumber and strawberry.

In case of double sigmoid two rapid growth period are separated by an intermediate period that is less growth or no increasing growth curve. Double sigmoid growth curve can be used as two successive sigmoid curve thus there are three clearly define stage of growth.

Fruit ripening is a highly coordinated, genetically programmed and an irreversible phenomenon involving a series of physiological, biochemical and organoleptic changes which finally lead to the development of a soft edible ripe fruit with desirable quality attributes. Ripening is the process where changes take place in the fleshy fruit and make it edible. It represents the unique coordination of developmental and biochemical pathways leading to changes in colour, texture, aroma and nutritional quality of mature seed-bearing plant organs (Barry and Giovannoni, 2007). Physiologically mature fruit is transformed from an unfavourable state of firmness, texture, colour, flavour and aroma to favourable state for consumption. It is the final phase in the development of fruit and involves major metabolic changes and it is normally an irreversible event. The ripening phase does not start until the fruit has developed considerably from the tissues present at anthesis and it is difficult to stimulate ripening before it attains maturity. The ripening changes which are common during softening are accumulation of pigments and changes in cell wall.

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and th chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to hav anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effect of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A2 or other enzymes Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in th present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication o plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitr production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in M liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection fo more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the productio of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biologica conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other cultur stages.

1. Introduction

Plant metabolites are the major sources of pharmaceutical food additives, fragrances and pesticides. It is estimated that the market potential for herbal drugs in the western world alone could range from US $ 4.9 billion to 47 billion by the year 2000 if the AIDS epidemic continues unchecked (Biotechnology and Development, 1991). A similar situation exists for plant based food additives, fragrances and bio-pesticides. The natural resources for plant based chemicals are limited but the consumer preference for natural products is greater. Alternative avenues for plant products have gained prominence during the past few years. In recent years, plant Biotechnology has gained considerable importance for the production of phytochemicals (Heble, 1996).

During the past three decades, several phytochemicals with biological activities have been identified from higher plants for plant tissue culture industry (Verpoorte et al., 1991). Vincristine, vinblastine, artemisinin, taxol and podophyllotoxin are in the list of approved drugs. Some products under clinical trials are forskolin, castanospermine, ginkgolides and hyperin (Heble, 1996). In recent years, there has been renewed interest in screening higher plants for novel biologically active products particularly to combat such ailment that have defined synthetics and antibiotics. This has resulted in the development therapeutics used in the treatment of cancer, hypertension, AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

Abstract

Recently there has been increasing interest in plants and plant-derived compounds as medicinal agents. In Ayurveda, a wide range of medicinal uses of Pterocarpus santalinus is described. Many important bioactive phytocompounds have been extracted and identified from the heartwood of P. santalinus. The major bioactive compounds present in the heartwood of P. santalinus are santalin A and B, savinin, calocedrin, pterolinus (K,L) and pterostilbenes. These phyto-compounds present only in small amounts and have more effect than nutrients. The heartwood of the plant is used traditionally for the treatment of inflammation, diabetes, headache, skin diseases, jaundice, and in wound-healing. A wide range of pharmacological activities and health benefits of P. santalinus have been reported, including antioxidative, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties, and protective effects on liver, gastric mucosa and nervous system. All these protective effects were attributed to bioactive compounds present in P. santalinus. Most of the secondary metabolites reported from this plant are terpenes, phenolics, flavones and sterols. The present communication gives the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of P. santalinus on health with up-to-date information.

Phytochemistry

Pytochemistry is concerned with enormous variety of organic substances that are elaborated and accumulated by plants and deals with chemical structures of these substances and biosynthesis, and their natural distribution and biological function. Chemical constituents of plants can be classified in different ways. Based on biosynthetic origin, solubility properties and presence of certain key functional groups, it is classified as phenolic compounds, substances that are readily recognized by their hydrophilic nature and by their common origin from aromatic precursor shikimic acid. Terpenoids share lipid properties and a biosynthetic origin from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (Fig. 1). Organic acids, lipids, alkenes and related hydrocarbons, polyacetylenes and sulphur compounds are derived biosynthetically from acetate. Nitrogen compounds of plants like amino acids, amines, alkaloids, cynogenic glycosides, indoles, purines, pyramidines and cytokinins and chlorophyll are basic substances recognized by their positive responses to either ninhydrin or Dragendorff reagent. Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, sugar alcohols and cyclitols are water-soluble carbohydrates and their derivatives. Macromolecules of plants such as nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides are easily separated from other constituents by their high molecular weights (Harborne, 1984). Some of the therapeutically active compounds are discussed below:

1. Introduction Plants naturally contain compounds called phytochemicals. Due to their numerous therapeutic applications, these phytochemicals are becoming more and more well-known these days. Phytochemicals are essential in the fight against a variety of illnesses, including cancer, arthritis, and asthma. These phytochemicals have no side effects like pharmaceutical compounds do. Because the phytochemicals treat illnesses without harming people, they can also be referred to as “man-friendly medicines.” The primary topics of this study are phytochemical collection, extraction, and qualitative and quantitative analysis. In order to protect themselves against herbivores, many plants secrete chemical substances. Examples of therapeutic plants that include the main groups of pharmacologically active phytochemicals are provided below. Weeds that contain phytochemicals, like chickweed, dandelion, and nettle, are frequently found surrounding human settlements. Many phytochemicals, including curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, genistein, and resveratrol are pan-assay interference compounds and are not useful in drug discovery.

Introduction

Phytosterols, phytostanols and their esters are a group of steroid alcohols and esters that occur naturally in plants as nonsaponifiable fraction of plant oils. Phytosterols (including plant sterols and stanols) cannot be synthesized by humans, and all plant sterols and stanols in the human body therefore originate from the diet. They are known to have several bioactive qualities with possible implications for human health. Their properties for reducing blood cholesterol levels, as well as their other beneficial health effects, have been known for many years. It was recognized in the 1950s that plant sterols lower serum concentrations of cholesterol. Plant sterols might also protect against certain types of cancer such as colon, breast and prostate. Scholarly reviews have all confirmed the health benefits and safety of phytosterols.

People with high blood cholesterol levels are typically advised by health professionals to exercise and consume a diet high in fiber and low in saturated fats and cholesterol. Although these measures can reduce blood cholesterol, sometimes they don’t go far enough. Other cholesterol-lowering interventions may be needed, including cholesterol-lowering medicines or adding phytosterol esters to the diet. The primary phytosterols in the diet are sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol and typical consumption of plant sterols is approximately 160 – 400 mg/day. The enrichment of foods with phytosterols is one of the recent developments in functional foods to enhance the cholesterol-lowering ability of traditional food products.

Pickles:- Pickles are a product which is prepared by using the common salt or vinegars of fruits and vegetables. It is a good appetizer and adds to the palatability of a meal. It’s also help full to stimulating the flow of gastric juices and thus helps full indigestion. Pickles are mainly preserving by salt, vinegar, oil and it can also be preserved by the mixture of salt, spices, vinegar and oil.

Ingredient of 1kg mango pickles: Mango piece 1kg, salt 150g, fenugreek powder 25g, turmeric powder 15g, nigella seed 15g, red chilli powder 10g, clove headless 8 number, black pepper 15g, cumin 15g, cardamom large 15g, aniseed powder 15g, asafoetida 2g and mustard oil 350ml.