eChapters

ABSTRACT

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.is a perennial herbaceous plant species of the family Scrophulariaceae growing at high altitude regions of Himalayas, and recorded to have a wide application in Ayurvedic system of medicine known by the name of kutki. In traditional system, this plant species is used to cure disorders of liver, respiratory tract fever, dyspepsia, chronic diarrhea and scorpion sting. P. kurroa is a growing source of interest because of having number of interesting activities such as immnunomudulatory, hepatoprotective and anticancer, highly used by pharmaceutical companies for development of new molecules and herbal botanical formulations. It has been scientifically validated that this species is a repository of bioactive chemicals such as picrosides, kutkoside, and cucurbitacins isolated and characterized mainly from the roots of this plant. This communication deals with the chemistry and biological activities associated with its main chemical constituents, and can be helpful in development of new drug as medicine. This communication will provide a baseline information and useful tool for researchers who work on the area of natural products, and look for new direction in drug discovery.

Introduction

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth is an important alpine medicinal plant of the Himalayan region. The root and rhizome of P. kurroa are source of the crude drug, which is characteristically bitter in taste and is linked to the medicinal properties. In Indian system of medicine, the species popularly known as Kutki, is an important constituent of several drugs items. This plant also finds a place in Chinese system of medicine where it is known as Hun-hung lien. Chemically, compounds of interest in Picrorhiza are iridoid glycosides: picroside-I and picroside-II. Material for crude drug has traditionally been extracted from the wild. Natural stands have sharply dwindled due to over extraction and habitat degradation. The species was listed as “endangered” in 1997 by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Commercial cultivation is not popular, but is urgently recommended.

Haemorrhoids or piles are due to swelling or enlargement of the veins that supply the rectal outlet of the body. Localized inflammation and bleeding, and also thrombosis in many cases often complicate this painful condition. People who suffer from constipation and other bowel disorders are more likely to develop haemorrhoids. Piles are also more common in pregnancy, and in conditions affecting the liver and upper bowel.

The pineapple is the leading edible member of the family Bromeliaceae which encompasses about 2,000 species, mostly epiphytic and many ornamentals. Pineapple (Anans comosus (L) Merr), belonging to the family Bromeliaceae, is one of the most important commercial fruit of the world. Its pleasant characteristic aroma and taste make it a choicest fruit both for fresh consumption and processing.

Now known botanically as Ananas comosus Merr. (syns. A. sativus Schult. f., Ananassa sativa Lindl., Bromelia ananas L., B. comosa L.), the fruit has acquired few vernacular names. It is widely called pina by Spanish-speaking people, abacaxi in the Portuguese tongue, ananas by the Dutch and French and the people of former French and Dutch colonies; nanas in southern Asia and the East Indes. In China, it is po-lomah; in Jamaica, sweet pine; and in Guatemala often merely pine.

The region which includes Central and Southern Brazil, northern Argentina and Paraguary, is believed to be the place of origin of Pineapple. From here it has spread to all countries of the tropic and some parts of the sub-tropics. It has been introduced to India in 1548. The major pineapple producing countries of the world’s are Hawaiian, Island, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Brazil, China, Kenya, Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, Australia, India and Indonesia.

Cultivars: Kew or Giant Kew, Queen, Mauritius, Cayenne, Red Spanish, Singapore Spanish, Haricharanvita, Charlotte, Rothchild. In Assam there are two indigenous varieties–Jaldhup Desi and Lakhat, both of which fall in Queen group.

Mealy bug: Dysmicoccus brevipus: Pseudococcidae

Mealy bugs are major pests of pineapple in India. They can attack roots and aerial parts. Colonies of reddish –white mealy bugs infest roots, crown, and fruits and suck sap. The leaves change in colour from green to red or pink and the margins reflect inwards and leaf tip starts drying. Severely infested plants become stunted and bear only small fruits. The attacked plants should be drenched with an insecticide solution of contact insecticides like Quinalphos or Dichlorvos or Chlorpyriphos@ 0.05% concentration, in between the fronds and allowed to drip down to reach the roots. Addition of liquid soap @4 ml per litre or 4 g of soap powder per litre is a must to get the best results.

The cultivation of pineapple, Ananas comosus is prevalent in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and North eastern parts of the country. It is one of the choicest fruits all over the world because of its pleasant taste and flavour. Pineapple is a good source of vitamin A and B and fairly rich in vitamin C and minerals like calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron. It is also a source of bromelin, a digestive enzyme. In addition to being eaten fresh, the fruit can also be canned and processed in to different forms. The description of some of the major pests infesting pineapple are given hereunder:

Mealy bug, Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

It is a polyphagous pest and besides pineapple it infests banana, sugarcane, citrus, coffee and long pepper. These are small, oval and soft bodied sucking insects. The eggs are pink in colour but remain inside the female body. The first stage nymphs are called crawlers which moves to find a suitable spot for sucking of cell sap, thereafter they settle at a particular place. The adult is elliptical and bears 17 pairs of wax filaments (Plate 10h). The colour of the pest is pink but looks white due to white waxy covering. The mealy bug first infests root and later they are found

Pistacia integerrima Stewart (Pistaceaceae) is an ethnobotanically important tree native to Asia. Pistacia integerrima is a species of pistachio tree native to Asia, commonly called zebrawood or the crab’s claw. It is often classified as Pistacia chinensis ssp. integerrima.

Pistacia integerrima, commonly known as kakra shingi, is a moderate-sized deciduous tree, up to 18 m in height, with a short stout bole found in the Himalayas from Indus to Kumaon. Hard, horn-shaped, rugose, hollow galls like excrescences are formed on the leaves and petioles of the plant by an insect of Pemphigus species. Dry powdered galls have a very astringent and slightly bitter taste and terebinthine odour. This tree is also used as a rootstock in the cultivation of commercial pistachios

Morphological characteristics

It is a moderate sized deciduous tree with rough grey bark. Leaves are 15-23 cm long with or without a terminal leaflet. Leaflet is stalked, 4-5 sub-opposite pairs, lanceolate, coriaceous, entire and arched. Flowers are greenish-yellow or brownish in colour, dioecious, 0.2 cm diameter, reddish in lateral, puberulous panicles, appearing with or just before the young leaves.

The term rare amino acid is misleading in some respects. It refers to all those amino acids that are not incorporated into proteins. We already got to know some of them like ornithine or citrulline that are rather common intermediates of the basic metabolism. Roughly 220 different structures are known, most of which occur in plant cells in a free state though glutamate-, oxalate- or acetyl- derivatives can also sometimes be found.

2.1 Introduction

Dear students, you shall be taught plant biotechnology during the third semester in the course ‘Elementary Plant Biotechnology’. But, for understanding of non-conventional breeding methods/techniques you should acquire some knowledge of basic plant biotechnology. Hence, in this chapter plant biotechnology is introduced to you in brief.

2.2 Definition

The term ‘biotechnology’ stems from fusion of ‘biology’ and ‘technology’. It was coined by Karl Ereky, a Hungarian agricultural engineer, in the beginning of 20th century. According to him, all processes used to yield finished products from raw materials with the help of living organism come under biotechnology. It may be defined in number of ways. However, in simple terms, biotechnology may be defined as ‘the controlled use of biological agents, such as microorganisms, or cellular components, for beneficial use’ (U.S. National Science Foundation).

8.1 Introduction

In pre-historic times, people lived as hunters and gatherers. Then, gradually they began to produce the crops they ate on piece of land, and farming was born. Wild plants have certain traits that keep them protected and productive without human intervention. However, most of them are not desired for food or other use by humans. By spontaneous mutagenesis and hybridization, occasionally variant plants were found that lacked some of the undesired traits, such as bitter taste, thorns, or had particularly attractive features, such as larger fruits and more regular tuber shape. Consequently, as time passes such variation was picked up by humans by selection of such variants, keeping and advancing them. Thus, plant domestication is the process of bringing wild species under human management. In other words, plant domestication is the process by which genetic changes (shifts) in wild plants are brought about through a selection process imposed by humans. It is a method of plant breeding in the sense that, when successful, it provides domestic types that are superior to ones previously available.

Pre-historic man domesticated virtually all of our present-day crops. But, domestication of wild species continues even today and is likely to continue for a long time in the future. For example, in many countries there is an increasing emphasis on bringing forest trees producing timber, etc. under human management. A similar trend is seen for medicinal plants and plants producing specific compounds of interest, e.g., hydrocarbons, oils, etc. Kala jeera (Bunium persicum), a perennial spice, was domesticated during 1990s in Himachal Pradesh; it is being cultivated as an orchard crop. One important aspect of domestication at present is the use of particular genes from wild relatives in the improvement of cultivated species. When a plant breeder transfers one or a few desirable genes from a wild relative to a cultivated type, he is, in a sense, domesticating the wild species in part.

9.1 Introduction

The sum total of genes in a plant species is called as plant genetic resources (also called germplasm, gene pool, or genetic stock). In other words, plant genetic resources refer to a whole library of different alleles of a plant (crop) species. Germplasm is the lifeblood of plant breeding without which breeding is impossible to conduct. It is the genetic material that can be used to perpetuate a species or population. It not only has reproductive value, but through genetic manipulation (plant breeding), germplasm can be improved for better performance of the crop. Germplasm provides the materials (parents) used to initiate breeding programme. Sometimes, what a plant breeder does is to evaluate plant genetic resources and make a selection out of existing biological variation. Promising genotypes that are adapted to the production region are then released for cultivation by the farmers. Other times, a plant breeder generates new variability by using different methods such as hybridization, mutagenesis and more recently gene transfer. This base population is then subjected to appropriate selection methods, leading to the identification and further evaluation of promising genotypes for release as cultivars. When a plant breeder needs to improve crop plants, he has to find a source of germplasm that would supply the genes needed to undertake the plant breeding programme. To facilitate the use of genetic resources (germplasm), germplasm (gene) banks are given the responsibility of collecting, evaluating, cataloguing, storing and managing large numbers of germplasm. This strategy allows a plant breeder ready and quick access to genetic resources when he needs it. The fact that Sir Otto Frankel coined the term ‘genetic resources’ only in 1968 shows that the plant breeders, though aware of the gradual loss of germplasm, failed to recognize the urgency of protecting the genetic resources of crop plants prior to a point of no return.

The aromatic plants are the valuable source for flavours, fragrances and other pharmaceutical products. The aromatic plants possess odoriferous and volatile substances, which occur in the form of essential oils, gum exudate, balsam and oleo-resin. The chemical nature of these aromatic substances may be due to a variety of complex chemical compounds. Natural essential oils comprising a complex mixture of aroma chemicals, which are difficult to reconstitute in the chemical industry, fetch very high prices. India has a long perfumery tradition that dates back to over 5,000 years in Indus Valley Civilization. In the excavation of Harrappa and Mohanjodaro, a water distillation still and receiver have been recorded, whose shape resemble to the deg and bhabka currently used by attaries (traditional perfumers) of Kannauj in India (Gupta and Chadha, 1995).
Aromatic plants are very important part of agriculture and have been grown in India for their fragrance and therapeutic use from ages. Presently, several aromatic plants are in use for medication have come from our ancestors, inhabiting in different countries. The recent advances made in chemical and instrumentation technology led to the identification and isolation of principal chemical compounds diversely used in medicines, food, cosmetics, toiletries, bouquets, aerosols, paints, varnishes, insecticides etc (Arya et al., 2021). However, the perfumery and allied industries consume much larger amount of the natural fragrant material. Many of the aromatic plants are valued for naturally occurring essential oils and the bulk of the produce finds use in perfumery and the food flavouring industries.

Many types of containers are used for growing plants in nurseries. These are clay pots, plastic pots, fiber pots, wooden pots, etc. Generally, the type of container to be used for growing a plant depends upon the kind of plant, objective of growing, choice of grower, etc. With advancement of technology, the container-grown plants are widely adopted, practiced by the nurserymen. The advantages of container grown plants are they are not prone to damage during packaging and transport. These are widely used for many fruit and ornamental plants. The different types of container and their characteristic features are as follows.

• Clay pots: Well-baked earthenware pots are used for raising plants. These are available in different shapes and sizes. On the basis of shape and size; these are named by pela, parali, kundi, nand, khobada, etc. Porous nature of the clay pots permits aeration, and water movement. Pot made with clay soil and well-baked will last longer than those made with sand or loamy soils. Before using, these are dipped in water for some period to soak the water in the pot itself sufficiently. However, earthen pots are heavy in weight, possibilities of breakage during potting and repotting and hence are less durable.

ABSTRACT

Soil salinity is one of the most serious environmental issues that limit agricultural productivity. Most of the food crops belong to glycophytes and hence, they are not able to withstand salinity stress. Salt stress significantly affects the various morphological, biochemical and physiological processes of the plant which leads to poor plant growth. Therefore, there is an emergent need to find out mitigation strategies to cope with the deleterious impacts of salt stress. Plant breeding techniques, efficient resource management and genetic engineering have been employed to cope with salt stress but these were of limited success as salt tolerant trait is complex both genetically and physiologically. Therefore, using plant growth promoting bacteria seems to be a cost effective and sustainable approach for salinity stress management. Hence plant growth promoting bacteria could play a significant role in alleviating salt stress. This chapter endeavor to provide an overview of the various important mechanisms such as facilitation of nutrient uptake, production of phytohormones, ACC deaminase production and siderophore production employed by the plant growth promoting bacteria to enhance the plant growth under salinity stress.

Growth

Growth means quantitative increase in the planwt body e.g., increases in the length of stem, roots, number of leaves, fresh and dry weight of fruits etc.

Development

It refers to the qualitative changes from the initiation of growth to the death of a plant or plant parts like seed germination, formation of flowers, fruits and seeds, emergence of buds, leaves and falling of leaves and fruits.

The quantitative increase in plant body such as increase in the length of stem and root, the number of leaves etc., is referred to as plant growth whereas, the qualitative changes such as germination of seed, formation of leaves, flowers and fruits, falling of leaves and fruits is referred as development. Utilization of these substances for proper development of the plant is regulated by certain chemical messengers called plant growth substances or plant growth regulators, which in minute amounts increase or decrease or modifies the physiological process in plants. Plant growth substances are the chemical other than nutrient which required in very small amount but without which plant can not complete their physiology.

The two sets of internal factors, viz., nutrition and hormone control the growth and development of the plant. The raw material required for growth is supplied by nutritional factors which include the minerals, organic substances the protein, carbohydrates, etc.

Phytohormones: These are the hormones produced by plants which in low concentrations regulate plant physiological process. These usually move within the plants from a site of production to a site of action.

Plant growth regulators: These are organic compounds other than nutrients, which in small amounts promote, inhibit or otherwise modify any physiological process in plant.

It may be defined as any organic compounds which are active at low concentrations (1-10 ml) in promoting, inhibiting or modifying growth and development in plants. The naturally occurring (endogenous) growth substances are commonly known as plant hormones, while the synthetic ones are called growth regulators.

Plant hormones: It is an organic compound synthesized in one part of plant and translocated to other parts, wherein very low concentration causes a physiological response.

The plant hormones are identified as promoters (auxins, gibberellin, and cytokinins), inhibitors (abscisic acid and ethylene) and other hypothetical growth substances (Florigen, death hormone, etc.).

Plant growth regulators are defined as chemicals other than nutrients and vitamins which regulate (or) modify the physiological process ofthe plant. A plant hormones or phytohormones are chemical substances which are naturally produced by plant in specific organs and are translocated from site of synthesis to the site of action. They bring about specific physiological response, even in very low concentration. The quantity of synthesis of these hormones differ from plant to plant, plant internal and external factors. They are readily absorbed and these chemicals move rapidly through the tissues when applied to different parts of the plant. A plant growth hormone may be termed as a plant growth regulator, but not vice - versa, since other than natural plant hormones, plant growth regulators are synthetically manufactured chemicals.

Plant growth regulators have a diverse chemical composition. Based on the general response the chemical mediates in the plant system, they are classified as growthpromoters and growth inhibitors/retardants. However, a particular growth regulator may be growth promoter at a lower concentration and growth inhibitor at higher concentration.

Plant growth regulators or phytohormones are organic substances produced naturally in higher plants, controlling growth or other physiological functions at a site remote from its place of production and active in minute amounts. Thimmann in1948 proposed the term Phytohormone as these hormones are synthesized in plants (Thimmann, 1963).

16.1 Introduction

Plant introduction is the process of introducing plants from their growing locality to a new locality. Introduction of plants from a foreign country is called foreign introduction or exotic collection. Introduction from one state to another within a country is called indigenous collection or indigenous introduction. With introduction, the process of acclimatization is associated. Acclimatization is the adaptation or adjustment of an individual plant or population of plants under the changed climate for a number of generations. Plant introduction is an oldest method of plant breeding. It is used in self-pollinated, cross-pollinated and asexually propagated crops. The material of seed-propagated crops is introduced in the form of seed and that of vegetatively propagated crops in the form of cuttings or propagules. The introduced material may be a new crop, a wild relative or a new cultivar of a crop already grown in the area. There are five important sources of plant collection, namely, (1) centres of diversity, (2) gene banks, (3) gene sanctuaries, (4) seed companies, and (5) farmers’ fields.

Propagation

Plant propagation means multiplication of plant by sexual or asexual method. The success in plant propagation depends on a thorough knowledge of the growth of plants, choice of suitable method and technical skill. The propagation of plants may be done either by the gametes or from the somatic cell, tissues or organs. In other words, propagation may be done by sexual methods or by asexual methods. The details of the methods are presented below.

Plant Propagation is a technique through which multiplication or production of new individuals take place from selected propagules. The methods of propagation are broadly divided in two categories:

1. Sexual method
2. Asexual method

1. Sexual method of Propagation

In this method, plants are produced from seeds and such plants are called seedlings. Seed is considered as a dormant plant which develops into a complete plant if subjected to congenial environment.

Advantages

1. This is very simple, cheap and easy method of propagation.
2. Some species of fruits, ornamental annuals and vegetables which cannot be propagated by asexual means should be propagated by this method. e.g. papaya, marigold, tomato etc.
3. Hybrid seeds can be developed by this method.

Plant propagation is one of the important fundamental aspects since the time of Rigveda (1400 B.C.) in the horticulture industry. It refers to the multiplication or perpetuation of individual or group of plants having specific value. Agriculture began, when ancient people started domestication of certain plants by growing around them and now these are cultivated in much improved form due to continuous selection and maintenance of better plant types. During the process of civilization; many plant types were selected for food and other purposes and are classified as food crops, fodder crops, fruit crops, vegetable crops, spices and condiments, aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. Now due modern plant sciences; newer and better plant types came into commercialization for cultivation. However, to maintain their qualities; it needs their propagation to keep their original form. Thus, it indicates that plant propagation has paramount importance in the horticulture industry to supply true-to-type sapling to farmers.

ABSTRACT

Young buds of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) were isolated and cultured on MS media with BA 3 mg l^-1 induced shoot organogenesis. Young buds from aseptically grown cultures were evaluated for the effectiveness on embryogenic callus production on different concentration of auxin in combination with cytokinin. Among the plant growth hormones tested a combination of 2, 4-D 1 mg l^-1 and BA 0.5 mg l^-1 was most effective in inducing and maintaining embryogenic cultures. The somatic embryo germinated on half strength MS medium supplemented with 3 per cent w/v sucrose and 3 mg l^-1 BA.

ABSTRACT

Protoplast isolation in orchids is considered to be a valuable tool for introduction of desirable traits through somatic cell fusion. The present work on the protoplast in Dendrobium var.sonia is undertaken with a view to standardize protocol for isolation and regeneration. Tender leaf mesophyll tissues of one-month-old Dendrobium var.sonia were used as explant for protoplast isolation. The leaf tissues were treated with enzyme mixture of cellulase 1per cent (Onozuka -R from Trichoderma viride) and macerase 0.25per cent (from Aspergillus niger) for 16 hours. Protoplast from the Dendrobium var. sonia was successfully isolated and regeneration of shoots and roots were obtained in MS medium containing BA 5mg l^-1+NAA 1mg l^-1.The plantlets were hardened in a span of five months.

ABSTRACT

Wetlands play an important role in provisioning of numerous goods and services for mankind. However, the type and the quantum of ecological services differs amongst wetlands. In the present study, we documented the various plant resources used by the riparian communities of two well-recognized wetlands, Dhir beel and Diplai beel, located in Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. The findings of study indicate that the riparian communities are dependent on wetlands for various purposes. The riparian communities uses 48 plant species as vegetables, fruits, fodder, fuel wood, medicine, roofing materials, craft making materials, bio-fertilizer and fish poisoning agent. Some of the plant species such as Enhydra fluctuans, Lasia spinosa, Colocasia esculenta, Diplazium esculentum, Ipomoea aquatica and Monocharia hastata aresold in the village market as local vegetables. The wetlands generate income for the riparian communities and save cashof many households settled plant near the wetland. Nevertheless, this study also revealed that some near the wetland resources are declining due to population pressure, encroachment near the wetlands, deforestation and over-exploitation of the wetland habitats for creation of many fishery ponds within the wetland and cultivation practices on wetland edges. The socio-economic condition, unemployment, easy accessibility and lack of alternativesources are plausibly themajor factors, whichare leading to the decline and depletion of the wetland resources. Therefore, appropriate management strategies are required for the conservation and the sustainable utilization of these plant resources.

Introduction

Tissue culture refers to the technique of growing cells, tissues, or organs under controlled, artificial conditions. This allows propagation of tissues from a small sample of cells/tissues under sterile conditions. Plant tissue culture is widely used for various purposes, including the production of disease-free plants, rapid multiplication of plants with desirable traits, genetic modification, conservation of rare or endangered species, etc. Tissue culture is a valuable technique because it enables consistent and large-scale production of plants, ensures genetic uniformity, and allows manipulation of plant biology at cellular level. In this chapter, we will discuss about the major types of tissue culture techniques and their advantages, disadvantages, as well as applications in brief.

Different Types of Tissue Culture

Callus culture involves induction and growing of unorganized, undifferentiated cell masses from an explant on a nutrient/culture medium. The part of plant used to induce callus is called explant which can be tissue, organ or part of a plant.

Organ culture is used to maintain or grow an entire organ or a part of organ in vitro. It preserves the structure and function of the organ for studies or transplantation.

Embryo culture involves isolating and growing embryos from seeds or ovules in a nutrient medium. It is used to bypass seed dormancy or rescue embryos from hybrid crosses that may not develop naturally.

Cell suspension culture involves growing dispersed cells or small cell clusters in a liquid medium under continuous shaking. This is used for large-scale production of cells, secondary metabolites, and studying cell biology..

1. Introduction

Viruses are a unique group of infectious agents. They are distinct in their simple, acellular organization; however, they are the connecting link between live and dead. Viruses are also the perfect example of obligate intracellular parasitism. Despite their simplicity, plant viruses are extremely important and drawn attention of researches because they can be used as model to study the disease establishment and progression mechanism, reproduction inside the host and trilateral host-virus-vector relationships. Their small genome also gave liberty to extensively understand the genome evolution caused by the genetic exchange or recombination. As a consequence, this will help in the development of facile methods for management and control of new emerging viruses and their strains.

This chapter is written for the beginners and students of virology subject to provide the fundamental knowledge about the origin, history of plant virology, the general features of plant viruses, their structure, shape and size, mode of spread and development of their management strategies. Besides this, the new development of non-conventional methods for developing virus-resistance in plants has also been explained for enhancing the quality and production of commercial crops in the country.

Coconut, cocoa (cacao), coffee, cashew, cardamom, black pepper, tea, rubber, oil palm and areca nut are the major plantation crops that are perennially grown along the coastal belt in southern States of the Country and to some extent in high rainfall zones of the northeastern States of India. These crops are also known as perennial crops. The life span of these crops varies from fifteen to sixty years or more depending upon the crop and its management. Coconut and cashew are also popularly known as the coastal trees. Cardamom and black pepper are also known as the spice crops. Once these plantation crops are well established, they mature for fruiting in three to eight years depending upon the nature of plantation crops and the crop management. The reproductive phase is seen round-the-year in case of coconut and cocoa. Cashew is one of the plantation crops with seasonality in fruiting from September to June. Cocoa is mostly grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens and in some pockets as a pure crop. Black pepper is trained to coconut and areca nut in many locations and seen as mono crop as well. All these crops are grown in laterite, sandy and alike in well drained soils. The hill slopes with terrace cultivation are also suitable for all the plantation crops. Tea, coffee and cardamom are seen on hillocks extending up to the base. Some of the plantation crops are seen in multitier cropping system as well as mixed/intercrops/homestead gardens. They are grown mostly under the rain fed and summer irrigation is beneficial for better harvest. The plantation crop distribution, production and productivity are influenced by air temperature, rainfall and the other meteorological variables viz. sunshine, cloud cover, solar radiation, vapour pressure, evapotranspiration, humidity and wind. Interestingly, coffee spread in Wayanad District while cardamom in Idukki District. Coffee experiences unimodel rainfall while bimodal in the case of cardamom.

Introduction

Plantation crops are high value industrial crops with great economic importance and play vital role in trade. It contributes to environment protection and sustains a large number of agrobased industries. It has great potential for utilization of waste lands in varied agro-ecosystems like rainfed, dryland, hilly, arid and coastal, providing higher employment opportunities, nutritional security, eco-friendly, high potential for foreign exchange earnings and above all providing livelihood security to people. They contribute 25% of AGDP. Major plantation crops grown in India are coconut,cardamom,cinchona, arecanut, oilpalm, cashew, palmyra, rubber, cocoa, tea and coffee. These crops grown between 20° N and 20° S of equator occupy nearly 3.2 million ha with a production of 9.8 million tonnes. All these crops are perennial in nature and demand  labour round the year. All plantation crops enter international trade and all of them have a long juvenile period. Coconut, arecanut and cashew are cultivated by individual land  owners who are not organized to the same extent as  planters of tea, coffee and rubber.

These crops are cultivated in an extensive scale in large contiguous areas, owned and managed by an individual or a company and whose produce is utilized only after processing e.g. Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Coconut, Cocoa, etc.

Purpose: It is important that the plants occupy the same position where the pegs were placed in the field. At the time of planting the tree the peg is removed first followed by pit making to receive the plant. The plant may be with the ball of earth or without the ball of earth. While planting the tree in the pit there is every possibility that plant may not occupy the same position where the pegs were originally placed. In order to overcome this problem planting board is used. Use of a planting board ensures the planting of the plant in the correct position.

Materials and equipments: Spade, khurpi, planting board, wooden pegs and chain.

Planting System

Main objective of layout is maximum number of plant accommodated in per unit area without affecting the efficiency of production. If more than one fruit is included in the orchard plan, each kind should be grouped into individual block. Similarly fruit ripened in particular season should be grouped to facilitate convenience in watch and ward, harvest and post harvest handling. Some kind of fruit trees need pollinators/pollinisers for improving the fruit set.

The system of planting to be adopted is selected after considering the slope of land, planting density, purpose of utilizing the orchard space, convenience, etc. Traditionally, six systems of planting are recommended for fruit trees. However, with the popularity of high density planting, there are some advances inplanting, especially in fruit crops.

1. Square system: This system is considered to be the simplest of all planting systems and adopted widely. In this system, the plot is divided into number of squares as per plant spacing and trees are planted at the four corners of each square, in straight rows running at right angle. Under this system, intercultural operations, spraying, harvesting, etc. can be done conveniently and easily. Cultivation and irrigation can be done in two directions. In this system, plant to plant and row to row distance is the same. e.g. 5x5m, 4x4m, 10x10m, etc.

   While laying out the plot, a base line is first drawn parallel to the road, fence or adjacent orchard at a distance equal to half the spacing to be maintained between the trees. Wooden pegs are fixed on this line at the desired distance. At both the ends of the baseline, right angles are drawn by following the simple carpenter’s 3,4,5 meter system. After the formation of three lines, it is easy to fix all the other pages to mark the tree locations at the required spacing by using ropes connecting the pages of the lines in opposite directions.

   Area occupied per plant = row to row distance X plant to plant distance

ABSTRACT

In vitro culture induced genetic variation constitutes an important source of variability for the improvement in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Hence attempts were made to standardize indirect method of in vitro plantlet regeneration in ginger using various explants like sprouted bud, shoot tip, leaf and pseudo stem. Explants from two cultivars of ginger viz. Maran and Rio-de-janeiro were cultured in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with various levels of 2,4-D and in combination with different levels of BA. Cultures were incubated under two different culture conditions viz. light and dark. Callusing was observed in all the explants except mature leaf in MS medium supplemented with 2,4- D alone (1 - 2 mg l^-1) and in combination with BAP (0.5 - 3.0 mg l^-1). Shoot morphogenesis was achieved from one month old calli in MS medium supplemented with BAP (3.0 mg l^-1). Regenerated shoots were subcultured to medium of same composition for further shoot proliferation and rooting. Plantlets produced were hardened and planted out. From the present investigation, highly efficient protocol for indirect organogenesis in ginger could be developed and the response of two cultivars at various stages of morphogenesis could be studied in detail.

In this chapter, a comprehensive list of all plants and trees mentioned in epic Ramayana has been furnished with salient details in order to establish their botanical identity and references of Sholka where it had been mentioned. Some of the plants and trees had been mentioned in multiple sholokas but the plant has been taken into account as a single reference to avoid repetition and to get correct count of the trees and plants in whole of the Epic (Amirthalingam, 2013, Arun Kumar, 2019; Balapure et al., 1987; Bast, 2022; Ghimire et.al, 2021; Mao and Dash, 2010; Prasad and Mishra, 1976).

The plant species mentioned in Ramayana were of different types having various usages. Considering their morphological characteristics, usages and other importance, they have been categorized broadly into the following heads.

1. Economically important plants (Timber value, product yielding etc. having commercial importance).

2. Edible (major and minor fruits etc.).

3. Culturally important plants (Plants used for plantation for shade, greening etc.).

4. Non-Edible Plants (Ornamental importance and other usages)

5. Medicinal Plants (having therapeutic uses).

6. Sacred Plants (having religious importance).

7. Others (having multipurpose uses).

Plants have played an important role in many mythologies and religions of the world and have been known for deep and sacred meanings throughout the ages. It is the symbolic representation of the old cultural traditions in the form of a tree across the world. Christmas tree in the Christianity and Bodhi tree in Buddhism are the example of tree featured in mythology. In most of the folklore, folktales and folk religion trees are often said to be homes of tree sprits. If history is traced, we will found that Druidism and Germanic paganism appear to have involved in religious conservational practices of sacred groves. Druidism is a nature based religion that was taught by Druids about 2000 years ago. The term druid itself possibly derives from the religeous word for oak. Therefore, the Druidism reconnects us with nature, our ancesters and ourselves by working with plants or trees.

Trees are honored in Indian culture for their different beneficial characters like medicinal properties, food, fodder, maintaining hydrological cycle, moderate the climate etc. There are some trees that have attained more than a special benevolence in Hindu mythology. In Indian mythology number of plants have been given sacred value and worshipped by different cultures. Some important plants of sacred value have been discussed here.

Abstract

Jasrota Wildlife Sanctuary (JWS) in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) Union Territory is floristically less explored. Between 2018 and 2019, field surveys and exploration tours were undertaken to obtain information from local people residing around JWS through open interviews, semi-structured questionnaires and group discussion. Total 113 informants were contacted and data collected by means of ‘snowball method’. A total of 138 species of 60 medicinal plant families were documented subjected to preliminary investigation, which includes 47.10% herbs, 28.26% trees, 19.57% shrubs, 4.35% lianas, and 0.72% parasites. Most dominant families were Fabaceae (11 gen. and 12 spp.), Lamiaceae (6 gen. and 8 spp.), Asteraceae (8 gen. and 8 spp.), Moraceae (2 gen. and 6 spp.), Caesalpinaceae (4 gen. and 6 spp.), Rosaceae (5 gen. and 5 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (4 gen. and 5 spp.), Solanaceae (4 gen. and 4 spp.) and Malvaceae (4 gen. and 4 spp.). Some of the common high valued medicinal plants were Ajuga integrifolia, Aloe barbadensis, Asparagus adscendens, Boerhavia diffusa, Cassia fistula, Lantana camara, Murraya koenigii, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Tinospora cordifolia, Zingiber officinale and several other plants. Traditionally lesser used plants were Abrus precatorius, Acacia catechu, Commelinabenghalensis Cyperus rotundus, Silene vulgaris, Robinia pseudoacacia, Urtica dioica and Ziziphus mauritiana. These medicinal plants are used in treatment of obesity, anti-helminthic, liver infection, diabetes, intestinal infections, rheumatism, tumours, stomachache, insomnia, nerve troubles, skin infection, aphrodisiac, memory related disorders, dermatological problems and asthma. Species with high frequency index should be analyzed for pharmacological research and for discovering of new medicines. It has been observed that lots of medicinal plants grows in this protected area and this sanctuary need proper conservation and management planning.

The use of natural dyes lost ground together with the old traditional dye methods towards the end of 19th century soon after the synthetic dyes came to the market (Gilbert and Cooke 2001). Only artisans, craftsmen, and green–minded companies continued dyeing with natural dyes (Hartl 1997). The first recorded synthetic dye is picric acid produced in 1770’s from the interaction of indigo and nitric acid. The synthetic dye industry is considered to have started when Perkins synthesised mauveine (mauve) in 1856 in the UK (Hancock 1997). With the passage of time, it was observed that synthetic dyes used by the textile industry are a source of environmental pollution (Seker et al. 2007) and they produce allergic, carcinogenic and detrimental effects on the health of humans (Singh and Singh 2002, Mahanta and Tiwari 2005). The synthetic dyes were preferred by the industry because of their simpilicity in the use and all colors could be produced easily, but the problem was the waste deposition which is a major cause of environmental pollution. The solvents used during dying reduce the problem to some extent but the waste water purification needs extra effort and money (Shreve and Brink 1985). As against this, the natural dyes are not only harmless to the humans but also cause far less environmental pollution, and have distinctive washing and sunlight fade–resistant characteristics (Mert et al. 1992, Angelini et al. 1997, Kim and Park 2006). For this purpose, the textile industries have started rethinking about the natural dyes and are trying to find sustainable as well as non–toxic alternatives to synthetic dyes for a growing textile market.

Abstract

Herbal healthcare forms the most favored system for curing various ailments of the people residing in remote areas of Himalayan region. Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes inhabit the hilly areas of Pir Panjal region of J&K along with their livestock and rely on the surrounding bio-wealth for their healthcare needs. But, proper documentation of traditional knowledge about the medicinal plants has been poorly attempted in this part of J&K. In order to develop a data base of plants being used by Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes of district Poonch, present attempt has been made. The present compilation recorded one hundred forty five plant species belonging to 133 genera and 76 families which are used by the tribal people to cure various ailments like rheumatism, diarrhea, dysentery, skin and gastric problems, wound healing etc. These medicinal plants comprise of 25 trees, 27 shrubs, 82 herbs and 11 climbers. Of the total, 44 species are native to Himalayan region and 101 are non native.

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, Medicinal plants, Healthcare, Gujjar, Bakerwal

1. Introduction

The word ‘PLASTIC’ is a Greek word which involves two words ‘PLASSIEN’ and ‘PLASTIKOS’. Denotation of word is to mould or shape into a soft substance which can be permanent or temporary. The use of plastics in agriculture as well as in horticulture has made substantial progress during the last decade. We all know that plastics contribute not only in planting but also in post-harvest handling and processing of many agri-horticulture crops. At every stage of horticultural crop life cycle plastics are used i.e. in seeds and fruits packaging, planting and propagation, mulching, irrigation, harvesting and preservation etc.

Plum weevil : Amblyrrhinus poricollis, Myllocerus laetivirens, M. sabulosus, M. undecimpustulatus : Curculionidae

Adult beetles feed on the epidermis of fresh and tender leaves leaving behind only the network of veins and affected leaves dry up and fall. They cause serious damage in young plantations.

Defoliating beetles
 
Adoretus duvauceli, A. versutus, Anomala dimidiata, A. flavipes, A. lineatopennis, A. rufiventris, Holotrichia longipennis, Hilyotrogus holosericeous, Lachnosterna coriacea, L. crinicollis, L. longipennis, Mimela passerine, M. pectoralis.

Plum belongs to the genus Prunus under family Rosaceae. The European plum are Prunus domestica and Japanese plums are Prunus salicina and hybrids. Mature plum fruit may have a dusty-white coating that gives them a glaucous appearance and is easily rubbed off. This is an epicuticular wax coating and is known as “wax bloom”. Dried plum fruits are called dried plums or prunes, although prunes are a distinct type of plum, and may have pre-dated the fruits now commonly known as plums. The major plum producing states are Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Mizoram, Punjab, Tamil Nadu (Ooty) and Uttarakhand.

Cultivars/Varieties: Damson plum, Greengage plum, Mirabelle plum, Victoria plum, Satsuma plum and Yellow plum.

Uses

Plums are mainly used consumed as fresh fruits. They are also used widely for making jam, jelly chutney and squash. Certain varieties of European plum are specially suited for drying to produce prunes. Prunes are firm fleshed fruits of P. domestica cultivars having sugar content which can be dried whole without fermentation around the pit, to make a firm tasteful product that can be stored for long period.

Pneumonia was once one of the most dreaded diseases known to man. It is no longer so. But pneumonia is still a serious disease. Germs causing pneumonia re of various types, such as streptococcus, staphylococcus, and pneumococcus varieties. Certain viruses are also responsible at times.

Pneumonia may be defined as an acute infectious disease of the lung, caused by the micrococcus lanceoaltus affecting principally the parenchyma.

A TTO fills the important intermediary position of linking research institution with industry so that innovations and new ideas can reach market. To be able to facilitate that effectively, the institutions must have well-defined R&D policies that include Sponsored R&D, Collaborative R&D, and Grant-in-Aid R&D. These ensure that the research remains properly managed, regulatory compliance assured and aligned with institutional priorities. This chapter has discussed about key policies that can help in successful operation of TTO while aligning institution’s mission and interests Various core policies that help in successful technology transfer include:
• Intellectual property policy
• Technology transfer policy
• Revenue sharing policy
• Startup/Spinout/Venture creation policy
• Conflict of interest/Conflict of commitment policy
Each policy has specific objectives. These policies collectively ensure a clear and consistent framework for technology commercialization.
11.1 Intellectual property policy
An IP policy is a formal document that provides guidelines for managing IP by an organisation. A strong IP policy build trust by ensuring efficiency and transparency. Other benefits of IP policy includes creation of environment to encourage innovation and commercialisation of IP. It also lays foundation to set out the rules for public-private partnerships while addressing issues among various stakeholders and ensures compliance. IP Policy is not law, but a proposed course of action.

Pollination

Pollination is the act of transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ of a plant to the female reproductive organ of same or another plant.

Pollination is of two types

5.1 Self Pollination

It is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower from where the anthers have been generated. Thus, self pollination happens to be denominated as autogamy where auto means “same” and gamy means “union”. Obviously, self pollination is found in bisexual flowers. But self pollination also occurs when pollen is transferred from one bisexual flower to the stigma of another bisexual flower of the same plant. This kind of autogamy is known as geitonogamy. So, self pollination has to be defined keeping the parent plant on the main focus not the flower. If genetical consequences are considered, self pollination promotes the occurance of purelines or homozygotes. Self pollinating species developed themselves evolutionary fit due to homozygous balance and do not exhibit significant inbreeding depression.

7.1 Introduction

Breeding plans are based on controlled mating (i.e., mating between selected strains) and selfing of selected strains or a combination of both. Continued selfing is practised to isolate purelines and inbreds. On the other hand, crossing (hybridization) is necessary to produce hybrids and synthetics. In crossing, self-pollination is prevented in the female parent. Male sterility and self-incompatibility easily exclude self-pollination, and so they are used in hybrid seed production.

7.2 Male Sterility

Koelreuter (1763) for the first time reported male sterility in flowering plants. Male sterility is a reproductive deficiency of some plants in which male organs in bisexual flowers become defunct. It relates particularly to nonviable pollen grains that are formed through a chain of vital processes during microsporogenesis. These processes are so delicately balanced under genetic control of many loci that mutation of any one locus may lead to the formation of non-functional microspores, and hence male sterility. In male sterility, pollen grains are non-functional (inactive); but the female gametes (egg cells) are normally functional.

The emasculation and pollination in any crop depend on its floral structure and biology. Cashew is basically andromonoecious (polygamo monoecious) crop with staminate and hermaphrodite flowers appearing in the same inflorescence or panicle (Rao and Hassan 1957). The hermaphrodite/bisexual/perfect and male flowers occur intermediately in the same panicle in three or four phases viz., Male – Mixed – Male or Mixed – Male – Mixed– Male. Distinct phases depend on genotype and environmental factors. The tree shows considerable variation in the duration of different phases. The hermaphrodite flowers are bigger in size than staminate or male flowers (Damodaran et.al., 1965). Male flower always exceed the bisexual flowers. The flowers produced early in a panicle are mostly male (Rao and Hassan 1957; Damodaran et. al., 1965). Most of the perfect flowers are produced about one month after the first flower occurred in the panicle (Bhat et al., 1998).