eChapters

Pharmaceutical and chemical industries depend largely on toxicological evaluations to provide information regarding safety of their commercial products. Toxicologists so far have been relying on animal studies to investigate potentially beneficial or harmful effects of drugs and chemicals prior to testing them in humans. Traditionally, the safety assessment process during drug development has been based on screening indiscriminately a plethora of new chemical entities (NCEs) using a large number of animals as testing models in order to identify new therapeutic agents with the expectation that one or a few of these NCEs have some competitive advantages over the existing therapeutic agents. That is why they are more efficacious, bioavailable, selective, and safer. This approach is costly, time-consuming, and requires large quantities of test material. Currently, it takes about 10-12 years and a huge expenditure for a drug to move from research laboratory to patent. Thus alternative cell culture models in the early phases of the drug discovery process can save time and money both by eliminating least beneficial NCEs.

Preparation of Reagents

Culture media

For the culture of hepatocytes medium M199 (GibcoBRL, USA) is used. One pouch of the dry media is dissolved in 1 liter of filtered distil water. The pH of the media is adjusted by adding 0.4% sodium bicarbonate to be around 7.4. The media is than sterilized by filtration through seitz filter (0.22 mm) and stored in 50 ml sterilized conical flasks.

39.1. Aim

To prepare Jam from different fruits.

39.2. Theory

Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. For preparation of jam not less than 45 parts of fruits are used for every 55 parts of sugar. According to FSSAI specifications, minimum quantity of soluble solids in the prepared jam shall not be less than 65% (w/w). The jam prepared by using two or more fruit pulps, is called as mixed fruit jam. Approved fruit colour and flavour can also be added into the jam when declared on the label.

39.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Fruits like Apple, apricot, mango, plum, peach, guava, pineapple, pear and kiwifruit etc either singly or in combination (mixed jam).

40.1. Aim

To prepare jelly from guava fruits.

40.2. Theory

Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without addition of water, straining the extract and cooking the clear extract with sugar to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel. The jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and having original flavour of the fruit. It should be attractive in colour and should keep its shape. In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent. As per FSSAI specifications, the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in the final product shall not be less than 45 and 65 percent (w/w) respectively. Guava jelly is the commercial product available in the market however jelly can be prepared from sour apple, karonda, jamun, loquat etc.

41.1. Aim

To prepare marmalade from citrus fruits.

41.2. Theory

Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which the slices/shreds of peel are suspended. The marmalades are prepared generally from citrus fruits like orange and lemon. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades are kept slightly higher than that for jellies. They shall contain minimum of 45% fruit and 65% total soluble solids.

41.3. Raw material, ingredients, machinery required

1. Orange and lemon like citrus fruits are used for making marmalade.

2. Stainless steel knives, utensils for cooking and mixing, muslin cloth, glass jars, sterilization tank, gas bhatti etc.

Introduction

Different types of culture media are used for culturing microbes and plant tissues. Preparing as well as sterilizing them properly following appropriate method with safety for the desired purpose are important parts of research work. In this chapter, we will discuss briefly about different types of media, their composition, preparation and sterilization in laboratory for microbial or plant tissue culture.

Culture Medium

Ingredients mixed to prepare solid, liquid or semi-solid substance to support the growth of microorganism or plant tissue in vitro (outside the body) is called culture medium. Frequently, it becomes important to grow microorganism or plant/animal tissue in vitro for any or all of the following purposes:

• To study characteristic features or properties of microorganisms.

• To identify the causal organism(s) of infection in a clinical sample, so that appropriate remedy can be determined.

• To culture/multiply microorganism or plant/animal tissues in vitro for research or commercial purposes.

• To prepare/produce biological molecules, vaccines, antigens, proteins, metabolites, etc. in vitro for research or industrial purposes.

46.1. Aim: To prepare pickle from different fruits.

46.2. Theory

The preservation of food in common salt (NaCl) or in vinegar or edible oil with the addition of spices and condiments is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient /oldest methods for preservation of fruits and vegetables. Salt, vinegar, edible oil or lactic acid act as preservative in pickle making. Several kinds of pickles are sold in the Indian market. Mango pickle ranks first followed by lime, lemon, mushroom, galgal, aonla, jackfruit and karonda pickles.

Brining: For pickling, unripe fruits (like mango) after preparation (peeling, slicing) are mixed with salt or brine for its later use in pickle preparation

43.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of preserve and candies from fruits.

43.2. Theory

Preserves (murraba) are made by cooking the entire fruit or its slices/pieces in sugar syrup of higher concentration (65-70°Brix). Usually for 1 kg fruit around 1.75 kg sugar is used and the cooking is continued till the TSS reaches 68%. Fruits like aonla, bael, apple, pear, karonda, pineapple and papaya etc can be used for making preserves. Aonla, bael and apple preserves are commercially available in the market.

Candies are also prepared in similar way as preserve, but the TSS maintained is slightly higher (75-80%). In preserve, the fruit is kept immersed in syrup and packed while in case of candies, the syrup is drained off and fruit pieces are further dried and packed. For candy preparation, the fruit pieces are dipped initially in 55-60% sugar solution and the TSS of the syrup is increased by 5% everyday up to 4-5 days till a TSS of 70oBrix is reached. The fruit pieces are then separated from syrup, rolled in powdered sugar, dried and packed. Karonda, apple, peels of orange, lemon, grapefruit, petha (Ash gourd) and ginger etc are used for candy preparation. Petha, ginger, papaya, aonla etc candies are commercially available in the market.

Cell culture refers to removal of cells from an animal or plant and their subsequent growth in a favorable artificial environment. The cells may be removed from the tissue directly and disaggregated by enzymatic or mechanical means before cultivation, or they may be derived from a cell line or cell strain that has already been establwashed.

Primary culture refers to the stage of culture after the cells are isolated from tissue and proliferated under appropriate conditions until they occupy all of the available substrate (i.e., reach confluence). At this stage, the cells have to be subcultured (i.e passaged) by transferring them to a new vessel with fresh growth medium to provide more room for continued growth.

Pharmaceutical and chemical industries depend largely on toxicological evaluations to provide information regarding safety of their commercial products. Toxicologists so far have been relying on animal studies to investigate potentially beneficial or harmful effects of drugs and chemicals prior to testing them in humans. Traditionally, the safety assessment process during drug development has been based on screening indiscriminately a plethora of new chemical entities (NCEs) using large number of animals as testing models in order to identify new therapeutic agents with the expectation that one or a few of these NCEs have some competitive advantages over the existing therapeutic agents. That is why they are more efficacious, bioavailable, selective, and safer. This approach is costly, time-consuming, and requires large quantities of test material. Currently, it takes about 10-12 years and a huge expenditure for a drug to move from research laboratory to patent. Thus alternative cell culture models in the early phases of drug discovery process can save time and money both by eliminating least beneficial NCEs.

45.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of sauce from different fruits.

45.2. Theory

Sauces are of thinner consistency as compared to ketchups and contain TSS not less than 15oBrix. Pumpkin, tomato, apple, papaya and plum pulps etc are used successfully for preparation of sauces. Mixed vegetable sauce using pumpkin, tomato, chillies, carrots are sold as continental sauces.

45.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Fruits like Apple, tomato, papaya, pumpkin, plum etc are used for making sauce.

2. Stainless steel knives, de-corers, ladle and utensils for cooking and mixing, glass bottles, sterilization tank, Bhatti/LPG stove etc.

35.1. Aim

To prepare squash from fruits or fruit pulp.

35.2. Theory

Squash is a type of fruit beverage containing at least 25% fruit juice or pulp and 40% total soluble solids (TSS). Squash is diluted before serving (1:3). According to FSSAI specifications, class II preservative in fruit squash shall not exceed 350 ppm sulphur dioxide/700 ppm KMS or 600 ppm sodium benzoate. Artificial colour and flavours can also be added when declared on the label.

35.3. Raw material, ingredients, machinery and equipments required

1. Fruits like mango, orange, lemon, lime, litchi, pear, apricot and pineapple are used for making squash.

Need of Analysis Technique

There are various methods to determine the concentration of a substance present in the matrix of an organic matter, these methods are very expensive, require expertise, need skilled man power, expensive chemicals and sophisticated equipments. But the volumetric analysis requires very less equipment and its level of accuracy is fairly high. It is very beneficial in the preparation of normal and molar solutions which is the back bone of all the research. Scientific venture is useless without the preparation of accurate standard solutions which is to be used in the estimation of various substances by sophisticated techniques like colorimetry, spectrophotometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS), inductively coupled plasma emission spectrophotometer (ICP) etc. So the emphasis has been laid on the preparation of quick and accurate preparation of the standards. Volumetric analysis is the simplest technique by which, we can determine the concentration of a substance in solution form by titration of unknown solution against a known concentration solution. One solution is called the standard (known concentration) and other is called unknown solution. In this, reaction takes place either

47.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of pickle from different vegetables.

47.2. Theory

Pickles are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a meal. Pickles may be unfermented (mostly Indian pickles) and fermented (western pickles). Salt, vinegar, edible oil or acetic acid acts as preservative in pickle making. Mixed vegetable pickle from cauliflower, carrot and turnip is most common. Cucumber and olive pickles are examples of fermented pickles. The process of steeping vegetables/fruits in salt solution is also a common method used for preservation of mango and vegetable slices for longer duration storage for its later use in pickling.

Introduction

Vegetable crops are an important component of Indian Agriculture. They are known for their short cycle and high productivity per unit area providing a valuable source of income leading to improve livelihood. The prosperity and advancement of a nation largely depend on achieving nutritional security to its people. The vegetables play a vital role as major supplement to food and nutritional security of our people. They are important source of nutrients like b- carotene, vitamin B, C, E as well as folic acid, iron, magnesium, etc. and they also supply fair amounts of carbohydrate, protein, fiber, antioxidants and energy.

Introduction

Beauty, purity, love and passion are some of the emotions symbolized by the flowers. The feelings of love, affection and joy are conveyed effectively with these non-speaking beauties of nature, for example a lotus conveys purity, rose love, pansy thoughts and narcissus egotism. Flowers have a definite role to play at almost all occasions of human affairs like birth, marriage, worship, adornments and death. Besides flowers, other ornamental plants also play an important role in environmental planning of urban and rural areas and from wasteland development to overcoming pollution. An important aspect of floriculture is that it is a good avenue to generate gainful employment for youth and women of peri-urban and rural areas.

Introduction

India (8^o-30^o N and 68-97.5^ºE) exhibits a wide range in topography and climate, which has a bearing on its vegetation and floristic composition. This subcontinent is one of the World’s 12 leading Biodiversity Centres, encompassing 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and about 426 habitats of specific species. It has been estimated that about 45,000 plant species (nearly 20% of the global species) occurs in the Indian Sub-continent. About 3,500 species of both higher and lower plant groups are of medicinal values. More than 80 per cent of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are collected from 17 million hectares of Indian forest land. However, many of these, due to over-exploitation have become rare (Rheum emodi, Aconitum deinorrhizum), threatened (Rauvolfia serpentina, Berberis artistata) or endangered ones (Sassurea lappa, Dioscorea deltoidea). Problems arising out of rapid genetic loss of medicinal plants forced the need for international co-operation and co-ordination to undertake programmes for conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate quantities are available for future generations.

7.1. Introduction

Preservation of fruit and vegetables by application of heat is one of the important methods of food preservation as it not only imparts desirable effect in the eating quality of the food but also exerts a preservative effect on the foods by destruction of micro-organisms, enzymes, insects and parasites. Other advantages of heat processing include destruction of anti nutritional factors (e.g. trypsin inhibitor in some legumes), improvement in availability of some nutrients (eg improved digestibility of proteins, gelatinization of starches, and release of bound niacin), production of shelf-stable foods that do not require refrigeration and above all it offers a relatively simple control of processing conditions. The disadvantages of heat processing include alteration or destruction of sensory quality of foods like flavor, colour, taste and texture as a result the heat processed foods are perceived to have different quality as compared to fresh produce.

6.1. Introduction

Chemical preservatives are those substances which minute organoleptic and physico-chemical properties . Preservation of food products with chemical preservatives is usually based on the combined or synergistic activity of several additives, intrinsic product parameters (e.g. composition, acidity, water activity) and extrinsic factors (e.g. processing and storage temperature).

Many chemical substances are added to the food for functional purposes and are called as additives and in many cases these are found to occur naturally in some foods. An additive is defined as a substance or mixture of substances other than basic food ingredient present in a food as a result of any aspect of production, processing or packaging.

10.1. Introduction

Sugar acts as a preservative by osmosis and sugar is not a true poison fo micro organisms. It absorbs most of the available water and restricts the availability of water/moisture required for growth of micro-organism. The concentration of 68 70% sugar is used for preparation of jam and jellies. Sugar adds value to these products as it imparts sweetness as well as body to these products. When sugar is boiled with acid and fruits it is hydrolyzed into dextrose and fructose, the degree of inversion depending on the pH and duration of boiling. Because of inversion of sucrose, a mixture of sucrose, glucose and fructose are found in jams and jellies.

Jams, jellies and marmalades constitute an important class of preserved fruit products. Apple jam, pineapple jam, strawberry jam and mixed fruit jam prepared by using pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. Similarly, guava jelly and orange marmalade are also examples of such products.

11.1. Introduction

A fruit preserve is a product made from properly matured fruit by cooking it whole or in the form of large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and transparent. A fruit impregnated with cane sugar and glucose, followed by subsequent draining and drying is called a candied fruit e.g. petha candy, ginger candy. Further, candied fruit covered or coated with a thin transparent coating of sugar, which imparts a glossy appearance is referred to as a glaced fruit. When candied fruit is coated with sugar crystals either by rolling it in powdered sugar or by allowing the sugar crystals from glucose syrup to deposit on it, it becomes a crystallized fruit. The use of high concentration of sugar in these products acts as the preservative. The products like Petha candy, aonla preserve, apple rings; candied citrus peels, ginger candy, ginger in syrup; bael, pineapple and carrot preserve are the commercial products in this category.

13.1. Introduction

The preservation by using common salt, spices and vinegar is a common method for preparation of pickles, sauce and chutneys. Salt is mostly used as preservative in pickles in combination with acid. Minimum concentration of salt to act as preservative is about 12%. It inhibits enzymatic browning/discoloration by acting as an anti-oxidant. It exerts its preservative action by:

• Causing high osmotic pressure and thus suppress the microbial cells.

• Dehydrating food by tying up the moisture thus making it unavailable for the growth of microorganisms.

• Salt in the food affects the solubility of oxygen and thus growth of aerobic microorganisms is inhibited

• Chlorine in sodium chloride being good oxidizing agent is toxic to microorganisms

• Salt increases the permeability of the cell wall and thus cause changes in the permeability. Only the haloduric microorganisms can tolerate these effects while others are unable to survive.

• Similarly addition of acid to the food lowers the pH of the food which inhibits the growth of spoilage causing microorganisms.

• Addition of spices and edible oil in these products besides improving flavour and taste also help in preservation.

Preserve:- Amature fruits/vegetable or its pieces impregnated with heavy sugar syrup till it become tender and transparent is known as preserve. The fruits like aonla, bael, apple, pear, mango, cherry, karonda, pineapple, papaya are commonly used.

Candied fruit:-A fruits/vegetable impregnated with cane sugar syrup and subsequently drained free of syrup and dried is known as candy. The most suitable fruits are aonla, apple, pear, cherry, karonda, pineapple, papaya are commonly used. In candy the total sugar contains of the impregnated fruits is kept about 75% to prevent fermentation.

4.1 Overview of Concept and Science

Preserving flowers and plant parts has been a form of artistic expression that was very popular in Victorian ages. Now, this process is moving from an art to a highly interdisciplinary science and has become a major economic activity on a global scale. Because, dry decorative products have been globally accepted as natural, eco-friendly, long lasting and inexpensive as compare to fresh flowers and plant parts, which are perishable and delicate in nature. These perishables cannot retain their fresh like appearance and beauty for several months and it becomes prodigious job to maintain these qualities. Even with preservatives, the vase life of fresh cut flowers has been prolonged to an extent of 40 per cent only. Hence, for those who want the beauty of nature around them in the form of flowers but on a more permanent basis dried flowers are a solution.

Domain of Dried Flowers

Anything from botanicals such as stems, twigs, branches, bark, leaves/ foliage, flowers, thorns/ spines, fruits, cones, seeds, roots; and minor forest products like lichens, fleshy fungi, mosses, selleginnela ferns etc. in a dried form come under the domain of dry flowers. Until a few years ago dried flowers were popular in the West with very few homes in India opting for them. But, today Indian homes have taken to dried flowers in their many forms and shapes like duck to water. There are different segments which are covered under dried flowers (Table 1).

5.1. Introduction

Food processing units range from home-based businesses to large-scale processing plants. The food processing sector is a highly fragmented industry which includes fruit, vegetables, dried, preserved, canned, pulps, pickles, chutneys, milk, dairy products, ready-to-serve products, frozen desserts, meat, poultry, marine products, grain processing, beer and alcoholic beverages, consumer, convenience and packaged food, soft drinks etc.

The main objective of fruit and vegetable processing is to supply wholesome, safe, nutritious and acceptable food to consumer throughout the year. Fruit and vegetable processing also aim to replace import of products such as squashes, jams, tomato sauces, pickles, etc., besides earning foreign exchange by exporting finished or semi-processed products. The fruit and vegetable processing industries are also established in the developing countries due to following reasons:

• Reduction in fruits and vegetables post harvest losses

• Industrialization policy of the government

• Generate both rural and urban employment

• Improve farmer s nutrition by self consumption of processed fruits and vegetables during off season

9.1. Principles of food preservation by heat

• Pasteurization temperature at below 100°C

• Heating at about 100°C

• Sterilization temperature at above 100°C

9.1.1. Pasteurization

• Heat treatment kills part, but not all microorganisms present and temperature below 100°C.

• Heating by means of steam, hot water, dry heat or electric current and cooled after heat treatment.

• Surviving microorganisms are inhibited by low temperature or some other preservative method, if spoilage prevented.

• Preservative methods used to supplement pasteurization include

? Refrigeration, e.g. milk

? Keeping out microorganisms usually by packaging the product in a sealed container

Food irradiation involves exposure of food to short wave energy to achieve specific purposes like extension in shelf life, insect disinfestations and elimination of food-borne pathogens and parasites. Compared to heat or chemical treatment, irradiation is more effective and an appropriate technology to destroy food-borne pathogens without much loss to the quality of food. It offers a number of advantages to producers, processors, retailers and consumers. Irradiation is a cold process and can be used to pasteurize and sterilize foods without affecting freshness and texture of food. Unlike chemical fumigants, irradiation does not leave any harmful toxic residues in food and is more effective. It is efficient and can be used to treat prepacked commodities. The FAO estimates that about 25% of world’s total food production is lost due to insects, bacteria and rodents after harvesting. Use of radiation can play an important role in cutting these losses and reducing dependence on chemical pesticides. The food borne diseases claim millions of lives all over the world every year. Irradiation of food can reduce these incidences by destroying harmful microorganisms.

The planning of a garden is an art. It is said that a poet is born, and in that sense a garden architect is also born. But that does not mean that a garden architect has nothing to learn. On the contrary he should learn enough of geology, geography, garden history, styles of gardening, and above all should have a profound knowledge about plants. It is imperative to know at the outset what is meant by landscape gardening. A landscape may be defined as any area, either big or small, on which it is possible or desirable to mould view or a design, whereas landscape gardening may be described as the application of garden forms, methods, and materials with a view to improving the landscape. The art of designing is known as “landscape architecture,” although the older term landscape gardening” is also popular.

Before discussing the principles of gardening in detail, it will be worthwhile to make some useful suggestions. The first and the foremost thing are not to imitate another garden which has secured a prize in a competition. One has to develop one’s own design giving due consideration to the local conditions. One more mistake which is commonly made is to plant many more specimens than a garden can accommodate causing overcrowding. In a landscape garden any difference in levels has to be taken advantage of, but in a perfectly flat land it will be costly to create artificial undulations. In each garden the care should be at least one feature or there be a second these two should harmonize with each other. Before planning a design are must be sure for what purpose the garden is utility or beauty or both.

Growth of horticulture is the cornerstone for augmenting employment opportunities in agriculture sector both directly and indirectly. Of late, there is a marked shift in the cropping pattern towards diversification into high value commercial crops in the country. To make horticulture viable and profitable, the thrust should be on improving the resource use efficiency, so that the relative profitability could be enhanced. Success in horticulture is more technology driven compared to other crops. The time bound removal of quantitative curbs on imports and other barriers to access domestic market under WTO, of which India is a signatory, will require Indian Horticultural produce / products to become competitive both in the domestic and international markets. This would call for use of Hi-tech horticulture technologies. The term Hi-Tech Horticulture was coined in recent years. There are no standard definitions for this. The Department of Agriculture and Co-operation,GOI in 1999 defined Hi-tech Horticulture as “any technology which is modern, less environment dependent, capital intensive and has the capacity to improve the productivity and quality of horticultural crops”.

Horticultural crops are ideal and valuable assets of nature to mankind. They are popular among masses since time immemorial but their importance was realized only in the recent past due to their high nutritive value, good taste and pleasing quality. They provide essential nutrients and minerals for proper functioning of human body and aesthetic surroundings for peaceful living. India is an important centre of diversity and several horticultural crops  originated here.  The horticultural crops constitute 13.08% of total crop area and contribute about 28% to GDP. The sub-continent extends from 8° 04’ - 37° 06’ North latitude and 68° 07’- 97° 25’ East longitude and it has tropical, sub-tropical and temperate climates which favour successful growing of a large number of horticultural crops.  India has a wide variety of climate and soil on which a large number of horticultural crops like fruits, vegetables, potato and other tropical tuber crops, ornamentals, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops, spices, cashew and cocoa are grown. Of late, major emphasis was laid on development of high yielding varieties and high production technologies and their adoption in areas of assured irrigation paved the way towards food security.

India produces 9.2% of world’s vegetables and fruits, nearly 109 million tons of vegetables and 57.69 million tons of fruits. The production of horticultural commodities is expected to grow to 300 million tons in near future (Kaur, 2008). India accounts for 18.2% of global trade in vegetables and 0.5% in fruits. The overall food wastages are very high amounting to around Rs. 10.4 lakh million. India wastes more fruits and vegetables than what U.K consumes. It is estimated that cumulative wastage of fruits and vegetables, on the farm, during procurement, storage and at the retail outlets, is worth about Rs.422250 million. 

“Standards are to Industry as Culture is to Society” said Shri C. Rajagopalachari, the first Governor General of India. Shri C. Rajagopalachari was inaugurating a conference on Standardization and Quality Control in February 1948. The great statesman has beautifully summed up the importance of standardization.

The basic principles on which procedures and practices are based had their origin in the United Kingdom, where the first national standardization movement started as early as 1901. Thereafter, procedures have been continuously developed, modified and improved till considerable similarity is achieved.

Recent awareness of consumers towards innovative probiotic fermented food products containing friendly bacteria and healthier foods has coined the term functional foods. Food development in the world is taking place mainly in three strategic directions as functional foods, organic foods and national foods. Every year the global demand is increasing at the rate of 15–20 %.

Fermentation by newer technologies involves specific strain of lactic acid bacteria. This brings specific fermentation under controlled conditions resulting in a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities.

Environmental agents (xenobiotics) that are injurious to cells trigger a spectrum of responses that can range from cell death to adaptation, repair, and proliferation. Cell death, in turn, can take the form of apoptosis (a programmed form of cell death). Xenobiotics have been implicated in toxic cell injury, among them free radicals (nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon derivatives) are known to interact with cellular constituents including membrane lipids and chromagen materials.

Cytotoxicity

Cytotoxic: Toxic to cells, cell-toxic, cell-killing. Any agent or process that kills cells. The prefix cyto- denotes a cell. It comes from the Greek “kytos” meaning hollow, as a cell or container. Toxic is from the Greek “toxikon” = arrow poison.

In nutshell, cell cytotoxicity refers to the ability of certain chemicals or mediator cells to destroy living cells. By using a cytotoxic compound, healthy living cells can either be induced to undergo necrosis (accidental cell death) or apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Measuring cytotoxicity can prove to be very valuable tool in identifying compounds that might pose certain health risks in humans and animals. Cytotoxicity assays are widely used by pharmaceutical industry to screen for cytotoxicity in compound libraries from initial high-throughput drug screens for unwanted cytotoxicity. This can be of vital importance and prove to be quite indispensable during research phase of developing therapeutic new pharmaceutical products to ensure the safety of end-users. Additionally, understanding the mechanisms involved in cytotoxicity can likewise give researchers a more in-depth knowledge on the biological processes (both normal and abnormal) governing cell growth, cell proliferation and death. Compounds that have cytotoxic effects often compromise cell membrane integrity. Therefore, assessing cell membrane integrity is one of the most common ways to measure cell viability and cytotoxic effects. There are three commonly used methods which can be employed to assess in vitro cytotoxicity (disruption of cell integrity) in cell cultures:

Introduction

India is bestowed with varied agro-climatic conditions. Thus, horticultural crops have lot of potential in the country. India has witnessed voluminous increase in horticulture production over the last few years, which has undoubtedly doubled the income of farmers. As a result, the country has emerged as the 2nd largest producer of fruits (102.48 million tonnes) after China during 2020-21 (Anonymous, 2023). The abundance of fruits ranging from tropical delights like mango, banana, guava and papaya to temperate fruits such as apple, peach, plum, apricot and pear, have laid a robust foundation for the growth of the fruit processing industry. This chapter delves into the dynamics of fruit processed products in both local and international markets, exploring the challenges, opportunities and strategies for sustained success. Fruit processing plays a crucial role in adding value to horticultural produce, enhancing shelf-life and meeting the diverse demands of local and international markets. In India, a country blessed with abundant fruit varieties, the processed fruit industry has been witnessing significant growth, catering not only to the domestic market but also making strides in the global arena. The processing of these fruits into various products such as juices, pulps, concentrates, jams and dried fruits has emerged as a thriving industry. This chapter will provide insights into the current state of fruit processed products in India, their importance for both local consumption and export markets, challenges faced by the industry and potential avenues for the future growth.

Objectives

1. To know the various steps involved in the processing of various spices and condiments.
2. To know the grade of some spices and condiments.

Processing: Perform a series of mechanical or chemical operations on (something) in order to change or preserve it.

Processing of some spices and condiments are given below

1. Black pepper

Processing involves the following steps:

1. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time.
2. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days.
3. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce.

I. INTRODUCTION

Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. Horticulture crops cover over 23.4 million hectares of area, which is approximately 12.7% of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output (NHB, 2013). India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 77.7 million metric tonnes of fruit and 159.5m M tonnes of vegetables (NHB, 2013). Besides, about 5.66 million tonnes of loose flowers, spices, mushroom and aromatic plants are also produced. The country produces 41% of world mangoes, 23% banana, 24% cashew nut, 36% green peas, 10% onion and 30% cauliflower and accounts for 12% of world fruit and 13.25% of vegetable production (NHB, 2013). Owing to wide diversity of agro climatic conditions, almost all types of temperate (apple, peach, plum, apricot, cherries and nuts), subtropical (mango, guava, papaya, etc), tropical (banana, pineapple etc), arid fruit (ber and aonla), plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and arecanut) and diverse variety of vegetables are grown in India. The export of fresh fruit and vegetables from India in 2006-07 was estimated at 9.84 Lakh tonnes valued at Rs 2411.70 crores. Mango, grapes, apple, onion, potato, green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies were the major items of export. Similarly, India exported 5.97 Lakh tonnes of processed foods comprising of mango pulp, juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2818.1 crores (APEDA, 2012) (Table 1 to 3).

I. INTRODUCTION
Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. Horticulture crops cover over 23.4 million hectares of area, which is approximately 12.7% of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output (NHB, 2013). India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 77.7 million metric tonnes of fruit and 159.5m M tonnes of vegetables (NHB, 2013). Besides, about 5.66 million tonnes of loose flowers, spices, mushroom and aromatic plants are also produced. The country produces 41% of world mangoes, 23% banana, 24% cashew nut, 36% green peas, 10% onion and 30% cauliflower and accounts for 12% of world fruit and 13.25% of vegetable production (NHB, 2013). Owing to wide diversity of agro climatic conditions, almost all types of temperate (apple, peach, plum, apricot, cherries and nuts), subtropical (mango, guava, papaya, etc), tropical (banana, pineapple etc), arid fruit (ber and aonla), plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and arecanut) and diverse variety of vegetables are grown in India. The export of fresh fruit and vegetables from India in 2006-07 was estimated at 9.84 Lakh tonnes valued at Rs 2411.70 crores. Mango, grapes, apple, onion, potato, green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies were the major items of export. Similarly, India exported 5.97 Lakh tonnes of processed foods comprising of mango pulp, juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2818.1 crores (APEDA, 2012) (Table 1 to 3).

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are an important supplement to the human diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins and fibre required for maintaining health. For various reasons, this abundance of production is not fully utilized and about 25-30% of it is wasted due to spoilage. Most of fruits and vegetables are seasonal crops and perishable in nature. In a good season there may be a local glut, particularly of fruits, but because of insufficient transport facilities and poor availability of packing materials, the surplus cannot be taken quickly enough to the natural markets in urban areas. Moreover, the surplus often cannot be stored for sale in the off-season because of inadequate local cold storage facilities. Thus the growers do not get a good price for their produce because of the glut and some of it is spoiled resulting in complete loss.

Fruit trees like ber, aonla, jamun, tamarind, custard apple, bael, lasora, phalsa, ker, pilu, etc well suited for arid environment, remained under exploited owing particularly to lack of appreciation of their quality as fruits, their economic potential and above all due to non-availability of the needed technology for their profitable cultivation. Because of their curative properties, these fruits have been used in Indian system of medicine such as Ayurvedic and Unani since time immemorial. Apart from their nutritive and medicinal values, quite a few of these underutilized fruits have excellent flavour and very attractive colour. In spite of these quality attributes, most have not undergone any conscious phase of domestication and human selection. Their cultivation is very restricted and they grow mainly wild. Being tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses, these fruit species are suitable for growing in the disaster- and drought-prone areas.India has a rich heritage of indigenous fruit types. Significant advances have been made in recent times towards providing technology support for their cultivation.

17.1. Introduction

Tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crops. These plantation crops are perennial in nature and cultivation of these crops generates considerable employment opportunities during on farm and off farm processing activities. The plantation crops are high value industrial crops contributing about 25% of AGDP. India is a largest consumer of tea accounts for 22% global tea consumption and also accounts for one-fifth of global tea area. Indian coffee industry also have prime place among plantation crops and also contributing 4% coffee to global market. Similarly, rubber plantations also provides basic raw material to toys, balloon, tyres, seed oil cake and rubber wood factory. The plantation crops along with main processed products also produce large quantity of biomass like husk, coir dust, coffee husk, tea waste, shedding etc which can effectively used to reduce nutrient requirements of crops. Parchment coffee prepared by using the wet method is generally favoured by the market. Cherry coffee, due to its very nature of preparation and longer contact with the mucilage and fruit skin, is usually associated with a characteristic fermenting flavour.

16.1. Introduction

Plantation crops are high value industrial crops grown in the tropics play a vital role in agricultural economy and export trade of developing countries. Plantation crops have great potential for utilization of waste land like rainfed dry land, hilly, arid and coastal areas to provide nutritional security, earn foreign exchange and to ensure livelihood security. The major plantation crops grown in India are tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera), arecanut (Areca catechu L.), oilpalm (Elaeis guinensis), cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum). India is the leading producer of most of these plantation crops. Among all fruit crops, the processing plays an important role in plantation crops as they are generally consumed only after processing. In addition to primary products which are exported largely, some by-products from these crops also have industrial as well as commercial uses. Coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, black pepper and cardamom are known as small holder plantations whereas, crops like rubber, tea and coffee are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crop. Coir, wood and shell from coconut, leaf sheath in arecanut, cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) and feni from cashew are some of by-products with a great impact and demand in the market.

44.1. Aim

To conduct practical on processing of tea and coffee.

44.2. Theory

Tea is an evergreen woody perennial grown in many Asian countries including China, Japan, Java, Sumatra and India. The plant produces dark green, small shiny leaves with white blossom. In post harvest and manufacturing practices for tea, only mechanical and physical processes are allowed with natural fermentation. It can be manufactured by orthodox, CTC (crush, tear and curl) processing.

Coffee is an important beverage used all over the world. Brazil and Columbia are the largest coffee producers in the world. Coffee is harvested in one of two ways; strip picking (entire crop is harvested at one time either by machine or by hand); selective picking (only the ripe berries are picked individually by hand) during dry season when cherries are bright red, glossy and firm. After picking, the coffee can be prepared either by dry method which produces natural coffee or by wet method which produces washed coffee.

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the four most important food crops of the world, the other three being rice, wheat and maize. It is a high yielding and nutritive crop and produces highest dry matter, carbohydrates, edible protein, minerals and vitamin C and B per unit of area and time. In view of the shrinking cultivable land area and increasing population of India, the potato has a high potential to solve the problems of hunger and malnutrition in our country. But, potato is a perishable commodity and its harvest time (February/March) in Indo-Gangetic plains (which account for nearly 87% of the country’s potato production) coincides with steep rise in ambient temperatures. From April onwards, temperatures start shooting up and the produce has either to be consumed within a short period of time or is required to be preserved in the cold stores. Due to inadequate, expensive and unevenly distributed refrigerated storage facilities in the country, there have been frequent gluts in the market causing substantial economic losses to farmers and wastage of precious food. Such gluts occur every 3 to 5 years. The glut years are followed by a reduction in potato area and production leading to high potato prices in alternate years which again encourage farmers to increase potato area in subsequent years resulting again in a glut situation and price crashes. This boom and bust cycle has thus continued for long (Pandey et al., 2009).

Introduction

Agricultural production is necessary to fulfil nutritional requirements for human populations and global food security. The agricultural sector also forms the economic backbone of many low-income countries in which millions of farmers are employed (Anushka et al, 2022). However, managing agricultural production to achieve multiple objectives of providing food, supporting livelihoods and protecting biodiversity and forests is a challenge especially in tropical, low-income countries (Anushka et al, 2022). Usually, the growth in global agricultural production is largely driven by commercial and export oriented commodities. One such agricultural commodity that has high global demand is cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Cashew is presently cultivated in 33 countries including India in the world. Global land area for cashew cultivation between 1980 and 2018 has seen an eleven-fold increase from 526,250 ha to 5,972,724 ha (Anushka et al, 2022).

Coconut, arecanut and palmyrah, which hold significant cultural and historical importance in India, have been the primary focus of cultivation efforts. Cocoa, a relatively recent addition to India, serves as a companion crop to coconut and arecanut, contributing to the economic well-being of farmers nationwide. However, the current situation emphasizes the crucial role of value addition and product diversification in stabilizing prices. Despite the initial stages of value addition in India’s palm crops, recent innovations and established value chains have the potential to empower farmers as entrepreneurs, thereby augmenting their income. Moreover, the value-added products from these palms have enormous export potential. This chapter explores the advancements in value-added products and the diversification of coconut, arecanut, palmyrah, and cocoa, providing insights into opportunities for cottage or small-scale industries.

Oil palm is a major source of edible oil globally and plays a crucial role in meeting the dietary needs of millions of people. India has been focusing on expanding oil palm cultivation to reduce its dependence on imported edible oils. Oil palm can yield high oil compared to other vegetable oils. Palm oil production rate depends on post-harvest handling, and milling and extraction processes. After harvesting, some quality changes occur in oil palm fresh fruit bunches which leads to reduce the oil quantity and quality. With proper handling of post-harvest bunches and adapting best extraction methods can increase the oil yield and quality. Palm oil alone has the potential to make India sustainable in edible oil production.

Introduction

Oil palm (Elaesis guineensis Jacq.) originated in the tropical rain forest of western Africa and is now being cultivated in more than 45 countries around the world especially tropical regions i.e., Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Columbia, and Ghana. This crop was introduced in India during the early 1990s, to meet the demand and to attain sustainable edible oil production in India due to its high oil-yielding capacity compared to other vegetable oil crops. It produces two distinct oils, i.e., palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm oil is derived from fleshy mesocarp of the fruit and palm kernel oil obtained from the kernel of stony seed.

India is bestowed with varied climatic conditions and a variety of horticultural crops are produced. It is estimated that 20-30% of the produce is lost before consumption because of various reasons including improper storage and this is where the need of processing for preservation arises. There are various ways of preserving the produce and various ways to process it.

Preservation is defined as methods of extending the shelf life of the produce in its original form or in a different usable form. The basic principle of preservation involves strategies which aim at reducing the spoilage. The horticulture produce is spoiled by microbial infection or infestation. Prevention of microbial damage can be achieved by keeping the produce away from microbes, by removing the microbes, obstructing the proliferation and by killing the microbes. Infestation in the harvested fruits may lead to other microbial infection and spoilage due to rotting.

Centuries before Greece and Rome were discovered, sailing ships carried Indian spices, perfumes and textiles to Mesopotamia, Arabia and Egypt. It was the lure of these that brought many seafarers to the shores of India. Emperors, kings, senators and the aristocracy transformed spices into the mostly highly prized commodities of ancient trade routes The story of Indian Spices is more than 7000 years old. By the 1400s, when navigational equipment had improved to the point that long-haul sailing became possible, European rulers set out to change the balance of world trade by funding spice-hunting missions of their own. Christopher Columbus who, in searching for a quick route to India, reached the Americas. Vasco de Gama was the first to surround Africa, and with a crew led by Ferdinand Magellan, fully circumnavigated the globe.

Objective

To know about the production practices used in spices and condiments.

1. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil.

Benefits of Mulching

1. Conservation of soil moisture
2. Improving fertility and health of the soil
3. Reducing weed growth
4. Enhancing the visual appeal of the area

Types of Mulching

1. Organic mulching: Organic mulches include bark nuggets, grass clippings, straw or salt marsh hay, compost and chopped leaves.
2. Inorganic mulching: Inorganic mulches include gravel, polythene and landscape fabric

Dietary supplements from plant sources are sometimes referred to as phytopharmaceuticals. They are produced from fresh, dried or otherwise preserved plants or parts of plants. The active ingredients are usually not completely isolated but rather are obtained along with other naturally occurring components of the plant. These other components are often believed to influence the efficacy of the active ingredient. Sometimes the active ingredients are concentrated, and undesirable substances such as chlorophyll, tannins, or resins, are removed.