eChapters

The application of insecticide to control a particular crop pest should have options of the pesticides, as some may be less effective than other due to various reasons.

Microbes present in the biofertilizer formulations help in microbial processes in the soil which augment the availability of nutrients to be taken up by plants. They are of different types based on their nature and function such as nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing, phosphate mobilizing or biofertilizers for micronutrients. Plants use different strategies for growth promotion at different stages of plant growth and development. Biofertilizers are mass multiplied cultures of specific beneficial microbial strains which improves the fertility of soil and productivity. The nutrients are added through natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilization of phosphorus and synthesis of growth promoting substances to stimulate the plant growth. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.

11.1. Bio-enrichment of chemical fertilizers- A new approach

Yield response of different host plant depends on the mineral fertilizer and its fertilizer use efficiency. Generally, such fertilizers are low in efficiency due to environmental and soil factors. A large portion of synthetic fertilizers are lost due to fixation, leaching, run-off, erosion, volatilization, denitrification and precipitation without reaching plants. Hence, there is an economic loss and water and environmental pollution.

Microbial inoculants applied to the soil enhances the uptake of nutrient by plants and increase the efficiency of synthetic or organic fertilizers. In this context, it is possible to impregnate mineral fertilizers with specific microbial strain. A new approach is to incorporate the microbes or microbial compositions into fertilizer compositions.

Introduction

In horticulture crops, plant materials has been  propagated through vegetative propagation methods for its superiority in growth as well as yield for centuries. Among vegetative propagation methods, micropropagation is most advance technique which made a significance in the horticultural crops to increase quality and yield. It can produce many plants from a single individual.

Introduction
   
The major land mark in the primary food production is the Green revolution during sixties, eventually leading the country to self-sufficiency in food grains. At present, agriculture and allied sector contributes 22% of GDP in India. Total arable area in India is 184 million hectares contributing a total food grain production of 210.01 million tonnes. Horticultural crops including fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. Horticulture crops cover over 20.7  million hectares of area, which is approximately 11.25%  of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output. India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 81.29 million tonnes of fruit and 162.2 million tonnes of vegetables (Annon., 2013).

Introduction

Humans and grass are inextricably linked to each other. The oldest unequivocal grass fossils are 25 million years old, originating in the Oligocene epoch (Thomasson, 1987). Grasses are one of the first permanent vegetation to reappear after disasters, such as volcanic activity, extended droughts, floods, fires, explosions, abandoned urban ghettos, and battlefields. In the past, landscaping was universally regarded as an extravagance for the affluent or as a decorative for mediocre and average structural design. Today, growers offer hundreds of selections for landscape designers who envision their backyard canvases swept with fulsome grasses. Countries are capitalizing on this industry at a furious pace and turfgrass research can be circuitously, the next moolah machine for enhancing lifestyle, real estate values and tourism revenues.

A high-yielding cultivar Vallabh Medha of mandukparni (Centella asiatica) was identified. Fresh herbage yield (12,331 kg/ha) and dry herbage yield (2,113 kg/ ha) of this variety were far more than the local variety (2,050 and 392 kg/ha respectively), besides higher active ingredients. Among mucuna selections, IIHR PS 15 with long duration, IIHR PS 6 with medium duration and IIHR PS 14 with short duration recorded significantly higher yield and high L-dopa yield/ plant. In Coleus, a promising hybrid, Hy 08-53, recorded significantly higher root yield (60.22g) and higher forskolin yield/plant (0.58 g). In ashwagandha, IIHR- WS 3 was found to be the best yielder (11.65 q/ha).

Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.)

The crop requires cool and dry climate during the growing season. Sowing of seeds at 4 kg/ha in 0.25-0.50 cm depth during November 20 to December 20 was recommended. In medium black cotton soil of Malwa region, second week of November was reported to be optimum time for sowing. Broadcasting of seeds followed by light sweeping with broom found to give uniform germination. A spacing of 30x 45 cm found to be most ideal to get higher seed yield in Isabgol under Madhya Pradesh situation. Response of chemical fertilisers was found low. However, a fertiliser dose of 25 kg/ha each of N and P₂O₅ as basal dose and 25 kg/ha N as top dressing at 30-42 DAS was recommended for commercial cultivation in Gujarat while 50 kg/ha N reported to increase the seed yield in Madsaur areas of Madhya Pradesh. At Anand three irrigations viz. first at the time of sowing and subsequently at 30 and 70 days after sowing (DAS) proved to be beneficial. However, four irrigations at sowing, 10,25, and 50 DAS at Mandsaur are recommended. Chemical weed control was found to be economical and a pre-sowing or pre-emergence application of Isoproturone (0.5 kg ai/ha) was recommended for weed control. One spray of Metalaxyl + two sprays of Mancozeb were found significantly superior in controlling downy mildew. In Gujarat, Pearl millet in Kharif and Isabgol in Rabi season are advocated as a suitable crop rotation. Groundnut-Isabgol rotation gave higher economic return followed by Soybean-Isabgol and Pigeon pea-Isabgol rotations in Maharashtra.

High-yielding crop varieties and hybrids with tolerance to pests /diseases and to various farming constraints such as soil and water salinity, soil acidity, drought, flood and such other factors have been developed.

Eight cardamom hybrids, NKE 12 × MB 5 (1,499 kg/ha), MB 5 × NKE 19 (1,461 kg/ha), GG × NKE 12 (1,350 kg/ha), RR 1 × CCS 1 (1,245 kg/ha), CCS 1 × RR 1 (1,022 kg/ha), ASH (1,930 kg/ha), NKE 12 × GG (1,746 kg/ha), GG × NKE 19 (1,635 kg/ha), were identified for high yield and resistance to mosaic and rhizome rot diseases. Two unique mutants, AFg-3 and AFg-4, for powdery mildew resistance were isolated in fenugreek. In ajwain, AA 93 has been developed which flowers 40 days earlier compared to other varieties. Thirty- two elite saffron clones were selected and evaluated for fresh and dry weight of pistil, stiga and style length, and weight. CITH 125 (4.5 kg/ha), CITH 123 (4.3 kg/ha), CITH 124 (4.3 kg/ha), CITH 122 (4.0 kg/ha), CITH 12 (4.5 kg/ha), CITH 121 (3.9 kg/ha), CITH 107 (3.8 kg/ha), CITH 120 (3.8 kg/ha) and CITH 104 (3.7 kg/ha), having higher saffron yield were identified.

High-yielding Plantation crops varieties and hybrids with tolerance to pests / diseases and to various farming constraints such as soil and water salinity, soil acidity, drought, flood and such other factors have been developed.

Three coconut varieties (IND 045S, IND 048S and IND 058S), two arecanut varieties (VTL 62-Shriwardhan selection and VTL7-Nalbari) and two selections of cocoa (VTLC 1 and VTLC 57) were identified for commercial cultivation. Coconut variety, Kalpa Samrudhi, was recommended for commercial cultivation in Kerala and Asom, and Kalpa Sankara and Kalpasree for coconut root(wilt)- affected tracts in Kerala. Molecular-markers associated with hybridity in coconut, dwarfness and resistance to root (wilt) and yellow leaf diseases were utilized. Homology-basedmodelling of somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinase (SERK) protein in coconut, development of a computational tool for detection of microsatellites in whole genome sequences, development of algorithm for gene annotation and genome-wide analysis of microsatellites in strains of plant growth promoting (P. fluorescens) are achievements in bioinformatics.

Cost-effective farming systems for spices cultivation for increasing production and productivity in different agro ecologies have been developed.

An organic package for production of black pepper, ginger and turmeric by applying farmyard manure, vermicompost, ash, rock phosphate, Azospirillum sp. and phosphobacteria and Trichoderma sp. and Pseudomonas sp. as biocontrol agents for disease control was developed. Further, a foliar spray of 1% solution of complex fertilizer 19 : 19 : 19 (N : P : K) during spike initiation period (April second week, May first week and May fourth week) during lean cropping season under irrigated condition enhanced black pepper (cv. Panniyur I) yield by 20–25%. Soil application of zinc up to 10 kg/ ha or foliar spraying of ZnSO4 (0.25%) and Borax (0.2%) twice (60 and 90 days after planting) was recommended for higher yield and quality for turmeric in zinc and boron deficient soil.

Among all the treatments, sprinkler and drip irrigation methods caused early sprouting; early flowering with increased plant height and more number of leaves and flowers/plant as compared to the control (rainfed). Also, stiga fresh weight, dry weight, length and saffron yield were improved in sprinkler and drip irrigation methods over the control. Raised beds resulted in early sprouting, early flowering with increased plant height and more number of leaves and flowers/plant.

Cost-effective farming systems for plantation crops cultivation for increasing production and productivity in different agro ecologies have been developed.

In coconut-based cropping system, elephant-foot yam cv. Gajendra yielded high amount of corm. Guinea grass (var. GGCo 3) produced higher green fodder (89.2 tonnes/ ha/year) under husk application. There was lower specific volume of soil and soil porosity (higher soil compaction), and soil dehydrogenase activity (an index of biological activity) as important abiotic pre-disposing factors in incidence of root wilt disease. Growing Gomphrena globosa as intercrop in root wilt- affected coconut gardens has been shown to be cost-effective and sustainable. In areca-based mixed farming system, total cash inflows and outflows from arecanut + dairy (3–4 milch cows) amounted to ‘4.41 and ‘5.96 lakh, with a net profit of’1.55 lakh. The system productivity of arecanut + cocoa system (3,127 kg/ha) was 30% higher per unit area than arecanut alone (2,405 kg/ha). Integrated nutrient management on four improved arecanut varieties recorded highest chali yield (4.19 kg).

A protocol for SYBR green based real-time RT-PCRfor detection of Piper yellow mottle virus and Cucumber mosaic virus infecting black pepper and Cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV) and Banana bract mosaic virus (BBrMV) infecting cardamom was developed. A native isolate of Phytophthora capsici (Is. No. 98-93) infecting black pepper was completely sequenced using next generation sequencing platform, Illumina-Solexa GA II. The sequence data was assembled by taking Joint Genome Institute’s P. capsici as reference genome. The treatment of black pepper cuttings with Carbendazim + Mancozeb (0.1%) was effective for the management of anthracnose disease in nursery.

The black pepper accession, 1114 (Kumbhachola), was tolerant to P. capsici. The accession was earlier found resistant to pollu beetle and drought. A new bacterial wilt disease on small cardamom was recorded in Wayanad, Kerala. The phenotypic and genetic characterization revealed that causative organism is Ralstonia solanacearum (Biovar 3 phylotype 1) and was 100% similar to ginger strain of R. solanacearum. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (GRB 35) and Serratia marcescens (GRB 68) were promising for enhancing sprouting of rhizomes, growth promotion and reducing the incidence of soft rot and bacterial wilt diseases in ginger in the field.

Crop protection research has brought out tangible and effective methods to suppress various pests in major agro-ecosystems. Indigenous knowledge in this regard has been tested and validated for its suitability.

Among the 137 Phytophthora isolates collected from bud rot/fruit rot affected coconut gardens in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, four isolates from bud rot affected gardens were identified as P. nicotianae and one as P. capsici. Since, P. nicotianae is found associated with bud rot disease of coconut in three districts representing three states, it is expected that this may emerge as a major pathogen of coconut. Further, placing Trichoderma coir pith cake in the innermost leaf axils of coconut palm in disease endemic areas just before the onset of southwest monsoon (May-end) and thereafter at two months interval was found to be very effective in the management of bud rot disease of coconut.

Azadiractin (1%) was found effective for the control of Hadda beetle on Ashwagandha. Nineteen arthropods were recorded on isabgol. Among them, 13 were phytophagous species belonging to order Lepidopteran (09), Hemipteran (03) and Homopteran and six predatory species belonging to order Coleoptera (03), Neuroptera (01) and Odanata (02). The sequential occurrence of arthropods revealed the presence of aphid (Aphis gossypii) from second week of January to fourth week of February, whereas Lepidopteran (Helicoverpa armigera, Trichoplusia ni, Thysanoplusia oricalchae, Spliarictia sp. Hyposidra successari and Olene mendosa and true bugs (Graptostethus servus and Spilostethus pandurus) were observed associated during early crop growth stages (i.e. from second week of December). Infestation of aphid was uniformly severe, whereas that of Lepidopterans and true bugs were sporadic and less severe. However, presence of these pest arthropods caused significant reduction in seed yield.

Recent Initiatives by National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer

Standardization of the drying techniques

In fennel five methods of grain drying were employed viz., shade dryer (30°C), sun dryer (35°C to 37°C), solar dryer (40°Cto 42°C), vegetable dryer (50°C) and multipurpose grain dryer (60°C). Fennel grains which were dried under solar dryer, gave maximum test weight (5.17 g), recovery (39.82 %) with lowest moisture content (61.30%) and highest taste marks (9.3) and colour marks (9.2).

Technique to collect fresh and hygienic inflorescence sap (Neera) from coconut

In the traditional method of collecting sap, the inflorescence to be tapped is connected with an earthen pot/bamboo receptacle for the sap collection. Spadix to be tapped is tied with plastic rope and a small portion is sliced off from the top. The spadix is gently stroked with a mallet in the morning and evening. After a period of 8 to 10 days, sufficient sap starts oozing out from the cut end. A type of clay soil, a gummy material or leaf extract is pasted on the surface and sides of the cut end. Since the sap is highly nutritious, both enzymatic and microbial fermentation takes place. The total sugar reduces progressively and it becomes more acidic and develops a harsh odour and becomes unpalatable. In order to prevent fermentation, lime is coated inside the pot. The above method is not hygienic and attracts lot of insects, ants and contaminates from pollen and dust particles. In order to collect the sap fresh and hygienic, a simple device was developed.

Introduction
World population is increasing and currently stands at 8.2 Billion as on 2025. Food security of population of any country is becoming a challenging task and the entire population depends on the available national resources. The importance of scientific community in securing foods for everybody was felt necessary and it was expressed that there is a huge herculean task to ensure food for everybody. Farming community and fruit growers across the globe were engaged in serious efforts to produce fruits of good quality. The necessity to develop advanced technologies for nutritious foods was thus given national importance not only for food security but also of nutritional security. The sincere scientific efforts to develop recent innovative technologies to support fruit production even at harsh soils and environmental conditions are praiseworthy. Farmers, stakeholders, policy planners and technology developers have been devoted to achieve the target of Sustainable Developmental Goals. The target of United Nation’s 2030 to eradicate poverty and eradication of malnutrition should be achieved sustainably. People across nations are working devotedly to achieve the target. However, climatic changes have been significantlyaffecting the food production to food security across nations. Decadal information suggested the adverse impact of climates on the fruit production. Recent changes in weather extremisms had also affect harshly on the food production to supply chain. Thus, the role of scientific community to coup up the environmental hazards and to sustain fruit production becomes a reality. In this context, agroadvisory services plays significant role to support farming community and fruit growers to adopt time bound managemental practices. The ultimate aim of these services is to improve the orchard soil and tree health condition, enhance factor productivity vis-à-vis profitability and precise use of available natural resources. Quantification of variability in environmental indicators, soil and tree interactions were felt necessary for formulating effective policy plan (Malhotra, 2017). Adak et al. (2022) advocated for foliage spraying of 1 per cent zinc sulphate on mango cv. Dashehari to enhance yield and nutrient richness in fruit pulp.

1. Introduction

Coriander is a vital spice crop with a grave role in delicious food test. It is a tropical crop and cultivated as a major in Rabi season in chill free extents through the blossoming phase. Especially, all portions of the plant are comestible, but the fresh shrubberies and the desiccated seeds are the parts conventionally used in culinary. Approximately of the diverse forms of coriander are greenery, blossom and capsules. Coriander leaves are mainly ironic in vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin K, with moderate pleased of nutritional minerals. Though seeds usually have inferior happy of vitamins, they do widely provide significant quantities of nutritional fibre, calcium, selenium, iron, magnesium and manganese. Mostly, coriander plant productivity is around one and three-fourth tonnes per acre of seed. The root is crushed and used as a condiment in useable form.

Genome editing has emerged as a powerful tool for accelerating crop improvement in horticultural crops by enabling precise modifications in their genetic architecture. Considering the development and advantages of genomeediting technologies in improving diverse characteristics of horticultural crops, substantial increase has been reported in recent years including ZFN, TALEN, and especially CRISPR/Cas systems. The CRISPR/Cas technology has proved its potential in altering many genes of interest in horticultural plants including fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants for improving agronomically important traits and attributes such as growth rate, seed size, flowering time, flower color, storage time, resistance to biotic stresses, tolerance to abiotic stresses, herbicide tolerance, metabolism, fruit color, fruit ripening etc. This technology opens new avenues for more favorable and precise manipulation of plant genomes to improve crop performance.
Genome editing has emerged as a powerful biotechnological tool with transformative potential for horticultural crops. It involves the precise modification of plant DNA to enhance desired traits, increase crop yield, and confer resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. Molecular tools like CRISPR-Cas9, TALENs, and ZFNs act as molecular scissors, allowing for the targeted alteration of specific DNA sequences with unprecedented accuracy. This technology allows scientists to introduce or enhance beneficial traits in crops, including disease resistance, improved nutrition, and drought tolerance. Horticulture is a critical component of global food production and human well-being as it involves cultivation and management of plants for food, aesthetics, and medicinal purposes. Horticultural crops comprising fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and medicinal herbs, not only contribute to nutritional needs of populations worldwide but also enhance the visual appeal of our surroundings. However, productivity and quality of horticultural crops face significant constraints due to challenges such as biotic and abiotic stresses, limited genetic variation, and increasing demands for improved traits. Plant breeders have employed various techniques, such as hybridization, selection, and genetic manipulation, to enhance horticultural crops. These approaches have contributed to improved yield, disease resistance, and other desirable traits.

Recently people are moving towards newer trends in food diversification for value addition. The beneficial effects could be either maintenance, promotion or well being of health or reduction of the risk of a pathogenic process or a disease. Genetically modified (GM) crops / foods, algae, mushrooms and probiotics are among the important functional foods which apart from improving health also protect against infections and/or stimulate immune systems. The interactive research between physiology, microbiology, food technology and molecular biology may produce many healthful, diversified value based food products for human consumption. The concept of value addition in food is changing significantly. Earlier the emphasis was on survival through hunger satisfaction but today it is aiming towards food safety and food sciences at developing foods which promote good health and reduce the risk of major diseases. With these efforts, these products have come into the market and are identified as functional foods. These include foods containing phytochemicals, dietary fibre, structural lipids, bioactive peptides, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Isolated tissue preparations are widely used in physiological or pharmaco logical research to delineate the mechanism of action of drugs or any active biomolecules. Traditionally it is used as a tool for bioassay of drugs. The tissue used for such pharmacodynamics studies may be isolated from different animal models viz. frog, rodents, rabbits, sheep, goat, buffalo, chicken etc. Evaluation of drug-receptor interaction and underlying mechanism of action is then performed using isolated organ bath or myograph where the isolated tissues are mounted under optimum resting tension and changes in the tension following exposure of drug is recorded with the help of recording device. With the advancement of science and technology, the recording devices are also gradually upgraded from smoked drum to student’s physiograph to the most advanced Data Acquisition System (DAS) based polyphysiograph.

The isolated tissue preparations (uterine strips, arterial rings, tracheal chains etc.) need essential and appropriate nutrients and environment during experimental which is generally provided by using suitable salt solutions (Physiological Salt Solutions) which provide ionic balance, energy supply, maintain pH and tissue tonicity. The composition of physiological salt solutions is such that it provides an artificial media simulating with the inorganic composition of blood plasma together with a buffer mechanism to maintain an optimum pH of 7.0 to 7.4 and glucose to facilitate tissue metabolism. Commonly used PSS are Frog ringers, tyrode, Kreb’s, de Jalon, Ringer-Locke, modified Kreb’s Henseleit solution etc.

1. Introduction

Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings. The aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature. Refrigerated system or a room system is maintained at a temperature which is lower than the atmospheric temperature. Due to higher temperature of atmosphere, heat enters the system. To keep the temperature of the system constant, heat must be removed continuously from the system. Heat removed must be equal to the heat transferred to the system. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means of air conditioning.

This guidance explains when a botanical drug may be marketed under an over-the-counter (OTC) drug monograph and when FDA approval of a new drug application (NDA) is needed. In addition, this document provides guidance to sponsors on submitting investigational new drug applications (INDs) for botanical drug products, including those botanical products (or botanicals) currently lawfully marketed as foods and dietary supplements in the United States. This guidance also discusses several areas in which, because of the unique nature of botanicals, FDA finds it appropriate to apply regulatory policies that differ from those applied to synthetic, semisynthetic, or otherwise highly purified or chemically modified drugs (including antibiotics). In particular, the guidance states that applicants may submit reduced documentation of preclinical safety and of chemistry, manufacturing, and controls (CMC) to support an IND for initial clinical studies of botanicals that have been legally marketed in the United States as dietary supplements or cosmetics without any known safety concerns.

India has witnessed tremendous increase in the production of horticultural crops especially fruits since independence. Due to specialized scientific interventions and application of latest research tools, the country is now among the top fruit producing countries of the world ranking second next only to China. However, the productivity has still remained low as against area under the fruit cultivation. Several neglecting issues related to the production technology have remained unattended so far. The old and senile orchards are now reverting towards a declining trend of production because of plant age factor, non-compatible varieties and poor canopy management (Baba et al., 2011).

In the recent past declining productivity of old and dense orchards existing in abundance has become a matter of serious concern for the orchardists, traders as well as scientists. In India 30-35 per cent area under fruit crops is occupied by old, dense and diseased orchards. For overcoming the problem of unproductive and uneconomic orchards existing in abundance, large scale uprooting and replacement with new plantations (rehabilitation) will be a long term and expensive strategy. Therefore research efforts were initiated to standardize a technology for restoring the production potential of existing plantations by a technique called Rejuvenation. The term ‘Rejuvenation’ means renewal or making new or young again. As applied to the orchard tree it would mean restoring the productive capacity of the fruit trees. The meaning of ‘Rejuvenation’ according to Chamber’s dictionary is ‘to recover youth character or to grow again’. Obviously, this would apply to those plants which have attained a stage where they are no more profitable from the grower’s point of view.

Pruning in young tree during initial stage help to form a strong frame work for better growth and development of the tree. However, on long term way, the tree becomes huge with gigantic canopy results in to problem of majority of agronomic operation, plant protection and harvesting of crop. Top working provides an opportunity to control the growth of tree and makes the tree productive with manageable canopy, in old and senile orchards.

Top working is a technique evolved to rejuvenate the unproductive and senile cashew trees. Poor yielding trees of 5-15 years of age can be successfully rejuvenated by top working. The unproductive trees are to be headed back to a height of 1.00 m from the ground level in October-November. The stem should be sawed off to avoid stump splitting. Soon after beheading, the stumps and cut portions should be given a swabbing with carbaryl 50% WP (50 g each per litre of water) or Bordeaux paste. Sprouts emerge 30-45 days after beheading. Sprouting will be profuse in young trees. So, it is better to keep only 4-6 healthy shoots on beheaded tree spreading in all directions and similarly the sprouts which come out from ground level (most probably water shoots) also removed frequently. On 30-45 day old shoots, graft scions of high yielding varieties following soft wood grafting technique. On each tree, 4-6 grafts are to be done to ensure at least 3-4 successful grafts per tree. The best season for grafting is March-April. Thinning of the extra shoots arising from the stumps should be done to obtain better growth of the grafts. Removal of sprouts below the graft joint and removal of polyethylene strip from the graft joint should be done. Top working is simple and can be done by farmers themselves after getting proper training. The top worked trees start yielding right from the second year of top working. Early bearing can be treated as one of the best advantages of this technique. The major disadvantage associated with top working is the huge casualty of trees due to stem borer attack. Intensive care and management to ward off stem borer is essential. As such adoption of top working on a larger scale would be difficult.

India has achieved tremendous increase in horticulture production after independence. Adoption of several production technologies developed by several agricultural universities across the countries boosted the production of the horticulture sector both by increasing area under various fruit crops as well as by elevating productivity. Though the country has acquired second position in world fruit production; the productivity is less than many under developed countries.Several reasons can be attributed for declining productivity; few of them are enlisted below.

• Cultivation of old and less bearing varieties
• Improper and unscientific management of fruit crops
• Large number of old and senile orchards with declining productivity
• Problems in flowering and fruiting due to aberrant climate especially during flowering and fruiting

1. Introduction

Plant diversity is vital for the survival and well-being of humanity. A number of domesticated plant species are critical to food security. In addition to the cultivated species, many wild plants also play an important role in meeting local needs for food, fuel, medicine and construction materials; crop wild relatives are also of special interest for crop breeding programmes. There are currently hundreds of underutilized plant species and varieties displaying traits of interest to meet present and future needs, while the value of many other plant species is yet to be discovered (Stohlgren et al. 1997). Researchers have confirmed the importance of the contributions and interdisciplinary understanding in relation to taxonomy, physiology, reproductive biology, conservation biology, hydrology, soils, as well as socioeconomic and climate change for holistic understanding of biodiversity patterns (Dale 1999; Myers et al. 2000). It is thus necessary that the professionals studying plant diversity require a synoptic view on the regulators of biodiversity and the tools through which the processes could be understood.

Spatial analysis can contribute significantly for improved understanding and monitoring of plant diversity. Results obtained from spatial analysis make it possible to formulate and implement targeted conservation strategies, which can be more effective (Escudero et al. 2003; Dale 1999). Outputs from spatial studies can provide critical information like evaluation of the current status of plant species and prioritize areas for conservation on the plant diversity, in particular geographic region. Spatial information, combined with available characterization and/or evaluation data, is very useful for effective genebank management (e.g. definition of core collections, identification of collection gaps, etc.). This type of analysis is conducted using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools, which allows one to carry out complex analyses combining different (spatial) data sources and generate maps, to facilitate the development and implementation of conservation policies (Goodchild 1992; Crosetto et al. 2000; McCarthy 2001).

ABSTRACT

Immature seeds of Garcinia indica were excised from the green fruits and cultured on Woody Plant Medium (WPM) with a combination of auxins and cytokinins. Somatic embryos were obtained on the media supplemented with BAP (0.5-5.0 mg/l) alone or in combination with NAA 90.5 mg/l) with 80 per cent frequency within a period of 2-3 weeks. Subculture of primary embryos on maturation medium containing BAP (3.0 mg/l) supplemented with IAA (0.5-1.0 mg/l) and / or Kinetin (1.0 mg/l) gave rise to clusters of secondary somatic embryos. In the subsequent subculture on hormone free half strength WPM the embryo clusters germinated with repetitive secondary embryogenesis. About 70 per cent somatic embryos germinated into complete plantlets, which were successfully transferred to the green house conditions.

Reproductive development determines flowering, pollination, fruit set, fruit growth, maturation, and ultimately horticultural productivity. This chapter introduces the physiological processes controlling flowering and reproductive development and explains the influence of environmental factors and plant hormones. Major plant growth regulators such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid are considered in relation to horticultural applications. PGRs can influence rooting, flowering, fruit set, fruit size, thinning, ripening, dormancy, and senescence when used appropriately. The chapter emphasizes crop-specific concentration, timing, method of application, and environmental conditions, highlighting the importance of responsible PGR use for improving yield, quality, and marketability.

A. ICAR Agricultural Institutes

• Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI), Post Box No. 181. Andaman Nicobar & Lakshwadeep Group of Islands, Port Blair.
• Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, (Rajasthan). Website: www.icar.org.in (Rajasthan).
• Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Izatnagar, (Uttar Pradesh)
• Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI), Barrackpore (West Bengal). Web site: www.cifri.com.
• Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), P.O. No. 225, G.P.O., Panjari, Wardha Road, Nagpur (Maharashtra).
• Central Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA), P.O. Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneshwar (Orissa).

5.1. Research methodology

Research methodology is a thorough investigation plan and the manual for conducting the research. This chapter’s examination of methodology aims to help readers comprehend the ideas, strategies, and tactics used to plan a study, gather data, analyse it, and interpret it in order to reveal reality and develop theories. This chapter has been classified under various sub headings for clear understanding:

(i) Locale of research.

 (ii) Pilot study.

 (iii) Methods of sampling.

 (iv) Variables and their empirical measurement.

 (v) Preparation of the interview schedule.

 (vi) Tools and techniques of data collection.

 (vii) Statistical analysis and interpretation of data.

Fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, plantation crops and spices, medicinal and aromatic plants, tubers, are the major horticultural crops contributing to the economic growth in India. Even though the horticultural sector is growing fast, with India being the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, the productivity and quality have to be improved in order to meet the demand of increasing population. Under these circumstances, ecofriendly techniques needs to be adopted which could ensure food security and sustainable production. Indiscriminate application of agrochemicals and chemical fertilizers in horticultural crops and their residues could harm the human health, soil and environment. Horticultural crops need an ecofriendly technique, as most of the horticultural products are directly consumed. Hence, there should not be any residues of agrochemicals in food products. In the current context, use of ecofriendly, cost effective and organic-based inputs like biofertilizers can maintain health of the soil and good quality in horticultural crops. The application of biofertilizers offers an attractive and sustainable means of improving the quality of food products. Biofertilizers like Azotobacter, Azospirillum and AMF and PGPRs not only supplies the required nutrients to plants, but improves the fruit quality and quantity (Pathak et al., 2017).

Restricted pesticides for use

1. Aluminium phosphide Captafol
2. Carbaryl
3. Dieldrin
4. Methyl bromide
5. Ethylene dibromide (EDB)
6. Sodium cyanide
7. Lindane
8. Methyl parathion
9. Monocrotophos
10. Chlorbenzilate

Retrospection

India is a unique country in the world with many religions and cultural diversity. Indian culture has been continuing through the ages because of its adjustability with others and openness. Unity in diversity is one of the major characteristics of Indian culture. It is a diverse nation where people of many religions live together peacefully. Religion in India is characterized by the diversity of religious beliefs and practices. In Indian history, religion has played an important role in the cultural set up of the country.

Hinduism is the main Indian religion and considered as a universal order, a way of life which is followed by the people. The origin for Hinduism is very old having no exact date of its inception. This is a belief and practices followed by people through the ages and considered as a process of humanity. The earliest known sacred text of Hinduism is ‘Vedas’ which dates back to at least 3000 BCE. However, it is believed that these texts are of divine origin and timeless. Hinduism was more philosophically and theoretically described in Upanishads, written roughly between 800 and 400 BCE. The Mahabharata and Bhagavad-Gita are other best-known book and widely cited on Hinduism. The Ramayana is the other most important epic book on Hinduism which teaches about life, principles, duty, justice etc. through the life-story of Rama.

Dasharatha was a great Hindu king of the Kosala kingdom and Ayodhya was the capital from where He ruled. He was the son of King Aja of Kosala and Queen Indumati of Vidarbha. Dasharatha had three primary queens namely - Kausalya, Sumitra, and Kaikeyi. Unfortunately, the King had no sons to continue his dynasty after him. Despaired Dasharatha summoned Rishyashringa, a forest rishi for a ritual to fulfill his desire of have sons. By that way, the King had four sons. Queen Kaushalya gave birth Rama and similarly, Kaikeyi gave birth Bharata and Sumitra gave birth two sons, namely - Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Lakshmana was very much attached and devoted to Rama while Shatrughna was devoted to Bharata.

2.1. Concept of review of literature

Research is a continuous process. For any scientific investigation, previous f indings provide basis to the research. It also helps to know the previous research work done in that area and acts as a torch for the new researchers. The review of literature is one of the important aspects in the research process. It helps the researcher to keep his work going in right and appropriate direction. To point out prior research in the area of interest and how our findings connect to past studies, a review of the literature is conducted. The proposed study is new in its subject treatment. However, an attempt is made here to put together some of the closely related research findings in the area.

The publication of “Flora of British India” by Hooker (1872-1897) was followed by a series of regional floras by Cooke (1901-08) for Bombay presidency; Prawn (1903) for Bengal: Duthie (completed by Parker & Turrill, 1905-29) for upper gangetic plains and adjacent Siwalik and of sub Himalayan tracts; Kanjilal (1966) for the forest flora of Uttar Pradesh; Gamble (completed by Fisher, 1915-1936) for Presidency of Madras; Haines (1921-1925) for Bihar and Orissa: and Kanji et al (1934-1940) for Assam. Duthie’s work was completed by Raizada and associates (Raizada, 1954, Raizada et al. 1961; 1983; Raizada & Jain, 1964, 1966). Later, Raizada (1976) brought together all additions made to Duthie Flora. However, the trends of additions has persisted afterwards and is hoped to continue onwards as well. Revision of old floras has become all the more important because the nomenclature of a large number of species has changed in accordance with International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1956, 1961, 1966, 1972, 1978 & 1983).

ABSTRACT

Himalaya represents an importantfocal point of botanical rich diversity, and homeofmanymedicinal plants known for their various therapeutic properties. Since ancient times, several plant species have been used as ethnomedicine, and only a few of these species have beenfully explored and validated scientifically. Today, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries are the fastest growing sectors that use botanical extracts to maintain the health and support integrity of the skin and other parts of human body.Peoplearedemandingcosmeceuticaladditivesfrommarket made from plants as herbal botanicals as these causes fewer or no side effects, and therefore, ethnomedicine are gaining immence importance for cosmetic and value added products development of natural origin. Human and animal skin is the largest covering of the body as it provide barrier to the internal cells ortissues,and protectthebodyfrominfections and toxic chemicals. Keeping in mind the importance of skin, investigations and literatures were consulted to document plants protectingskininfectionsfrom external environment.Thepotential high altitude plants ofHimalaya were screened outto be used inskin care and treatmentofvarious skin pathogens.Inthe presentcommunication, total 81 plants of 72 genera belonging to 40 families are presented that have ethnobotanicalapplicationinskin care and usages incuringskindiseases. This data will provide a base-line information for cosmetic and pharmaceutical companies for developmentof various new value-added products for human and animal health care.

It is an inflammatory condition that mainly affects the children and young people in their teens. It is considered to be an allergic condition that mainly attacks the connective tissues of the body, causing joint pains and St. Vitus' dance due to central nervous irritation and skin lesions. The most serious damage that this disease brings is the damage to the valves does the heart. Certain streptococcus germs present in the throat are sometimes responsible.

Morphological characteristics

Rewand chini is a perennial stout herb, 1.5–3.0 m tall. Roots are very stout and thick. Leaves are radical, orbicular, or broadly ovate, very large, and 30–45 cm in diameter with long petioles.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are small, dark purple or pale red in axillary panicles. The plant has three to five years of juvenile phase, followed by reproductive phase. Flowering occurs in June–July. Seeds are collected in late August–September, when they turn dark brown. Seed production potential varies from 300 seeds to 950 seeds per plant.

Distribution

The species occurs in the temperate Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim, at an elevation of 2800–4000 m. It is found in alpine zone on rocky soil, moraines, and crevices, between boulders and near streams in specific pockets. It is sporadically cultivated in the North-eastern states for its leaves, which are used as vegetable.

Climate and soil

Rewand chini plant is restricted to the temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine zones of the Himalayas. Well-drained, porous, humus-rich soil is suitable for its cultivation. It prefers exposed or partially shaded habitat and can be cultivated on altitudes above 1800 m in height.

The word RHUS means red because its flowers and leaves are red in colour. TOXICODENDRON means poison tree.

The effects on the skin, rheumatic pains, mucous membrane affections, and a typhoid type of fever, make this remedy frequently indicated. It mainly affects fibrous tissues, joints, tendons, sheaths producing pain and stiffness. Ailments from strains, over lifting, getting wet while perspiring. Rheumatism in the cold season.

Rhus Tox is the first remedy one should think of in any muscular pain where the cutting pain and soreness are temporarily relieved by movement. This is in direct contrast to Bryonia where movement aggravates pain.

1. Blast
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Pathogen attacks the crop at all stages of crop growth.
• Symptoms appear on leaves, nodes, rachis, and glumes. On the leaves, the lesions appear as small bluish green flecks, which enlarge under moist weather to form the characteristic spindle shaped spots with grey centre and dark brown margin (Leaf blast).
• Spots coalesce as the disease progresses and large areas of the leaves dry up and wither. Severely infected nursery and field appear as burnt.• Black lesions appear on nodes girdling them. The affected nodes may break up and all the plant parts above the infected nodes may die (nodal blast).
• During flower emergence, the fungus attacks the peduncle and the lesion turns to brownish-black which is referred to as rotten neck / neck rot / panicle blast (neck blast).
• In early neck infection, grain filling does not occur while in late infection, partial grainfilling occurs (Fig.1).

Introduction 
In healthcare settings, risk management is not a novel idea. There is a wealth of research on risk control in the supply of medications, in-vitro diagnostics production, pharmaceutical manufacture, health information protection, & healthcare process management. Risk management is an important part of patient safety programs in developed countries. An important aspect of quality improvement in laboratories is risk management, which requires an evaluation of every testing method. All the working laboratories must perform this repeated preventive means at least once a year. The safety of laboratory workers, the caliber of results, and environmental preservation all depend on risk management in good laboratory practices (GLP). These are a few GLP risk management techniques. GLP- The Concept In accordance with excellent laboratory practice, risk management should be implemented by evaluating every laboratory procedure to guarantee the safety of both patients and staff. When a GLP facility implements a risk-based inspection procedure, risk assessments will be documented. QA inspection programs will frequently cover widespread operations, but the frequency & extent of the inspection may not take into account or represent the risk associated with each action. By putting quality control procedures into practice, one can learn about the shortcomings of a particular activity and use this information to focus the quality assurance program. According to the OECD Principles of GLP, or “the principles,” there are three different kinds of quality assurance inspections: process-, study-, and facilitybased. Risk Management The process usually begins with the creation of management committee for risk, which consists of important Laboratory staff members and a few ad hoc people chosen by the primary members. All technical laboratory procedures (pre-, examination-, & post-examination) will undergo a process flow analysis

6.1 Introduction

Perennial crops are crucial for maintaining food security, despite making up only 4.2–4.7% of all agricultural acreage (Kreitzman et al., 2020). The value of fruit and nut production reached a value of USD 823 billion globally in 2020, with the top five fruit crops being apples (87 Mt), oranges (78 Mt), grapes (77 Mt), mangoes (55 Mt), and apricots (41 Mt) (Statista, 2020). The tree nut business is growing quickly, although making up a smaller share of the world’s agricultural output. Global tree nut output is expected to reach 4.2 Mt in 2019–2020, with almonds, cashews, walnuts, hazelnuts, and pistachios accounting for 31%, 17%, 21%, 12%, and 14% of the nut market share, respectively (Serna, 2020).

Tree crops require a longer investment period before producing a commercial yield; sweet cherry takes three years to attain a commercial yield, while pistachio takes ten (Rezaei et al., 2019). High-density monocultures of cultivars chosen for their potential yield, fruit quality, and disease resistance are part of optimal tree crop production techniques. These monocultures are maintained under intensive, high-input farming systems (Simon et al., 2017). However, inadequate pollination can seriously impair the quantity and quality of these agricultural products, prompting for meticulous dedication to pollination research and management (Bosch et al., 2021; Forbes et al., 2019).

Effective pollination, and on the contrary, situations in which pollination is restricted or deficient, depend on both internal and external factors (Figure 7.1, Table 7.1). The period of stigma receptivity, the lifespan of the ovule, and the quality and availability of compatible, suitable pollen are all considered as intrinsic factors (Howlett et al., 2015). Agronomic methods pertaining to plant nutrition, orchard layout, pest and disease control, pollinator activity, pollen quality, and weather patterns and their effects on flowering synchrony are examples of extrinsic factors(Toledo-Hernandez et al., 2017). Hatfield and Prueger assert that pollination is one of the phenological stages that is most sensitive to temperature, and as such, it has a significant impact on productivity (Hatfield and Prueger, 2015). Climate has been shown to be a key factor in determining pollination success and production in crops including peaches, apples, and almonds.

3.1 Training

Virtual orchards are sophisticated, simulated environments used to train agricultural robots in a controlled, risk-free setting. These virtual landscapes replicate real-world orchards with high fidelity, incorporating detailed models of trees, fruits, branches, and various terrain features. By leveraging advanced technologies like 3D modelling, physics-based simulation, and machine learning, virtual orchards provide a comprehensive platform for developing and testing robotic algorithms without the logistical challenges and costs associated with field trials. In these simulations, agricultural robots can perform various tasks, such as navigating through rows of trees, detecting and localising fruits, and executing precise pruning actions (Shamshiri et al., 2018). The virtual environment allows for testing different path planning and control algorithms, enabling researchers to fine-tune these systems for optimal performance.

Additionally, virtual orchards can simulate various environmental conditions, such as changing light levels, weather patterns, and the presence of obstacles, providing a robust testing ground for robots to adapt to dynamic scenarios. One significant advantage of virtual orchards is the ability to generate large amounts of training data for machine-learning models. Robots can be exposed to many pruning scenarios, enhancing their ability to generalize and perform effectively in real-world conditions. Furthermore, the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) can aid in training human operators to control and supervise these robots, improving their proficiency and reducing the learning curve (Sarker, 2021).

Rodents are well recognized pests and are considered the number one enemy of man. These animals, though considered primitive, have been so successful and abundant worldwide that they alone account for more than half of the known mammalian fauna. They can subsist on a variety of food and even without water for a long time. Due to their prowess of adaptability, they have successfully adapted to varied ecological and physiological niches, and therefore are inhabitants of practically each and every latitude and altitude. They multiply at super fast speed because they become sexually mature when they are just 6-8 months old. They then pose a challenge to man in all respects. According to Prakash (1988) in India there are 135 species and about 300 sub-species of rodents belonging to 46 genera. At least 15 of these rodent species are known to be the serious pest of public health hazard (Jain and Tripathi, 1988). Rodents not only damage the crops in the fields, where the infestation occurs at all stages of food production, processing, storage and distribution, they are also responsible for a number of diseases in the human beings.

Rodents attack the-crops shortly after sowing, during the vegetative growth and during the ripening of the seed heads. They damage the various crops of the kharif season viz., jowar, maize, ground nut and cotton as well as the crops of the rabi season viz., wheat and barley etc. They damage other crops also which include paddy, sugarcane, soyabean and Bengal gram etc. Hence some well planned rodent management is the need of the time and before going for the planning of any control method in a given situation it is essential to have an estimation of the population and the species involved.

Morphological characteristics

Tecomella undulata is a slow growing small deciduous tree with drooping branches and grey-tomentose innovations which are otherwise glabrous. Leaves are usually opposite, 5- 10 cm long, simple, narrowly oblong, obtuse and entire with undulate margins.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are pale-yellow to deep orange, arranged in few flowered corymbose racemes on short lateral branches. Calyx is campanulate, lobes broadly ovate, obtuse and mucronate. Corolla is companulate, veined, stamens exserted, flaments glabrous, stigma 2-lamillate. Capsules are slightly curved, smooth and seeds are winged.

Distribution

Plant is distributed in drier parts of North-West and Western India extending eastwards to the river Yamuna and ascending to an altitude of 1200 meter in the outer Himalaya.

Climate and Soil The plant prefers subtropical climate having medium to light soil.

Calcium, anti-oxidants and certain enzymes are reported to play vital role in extending the shelf-life of harvested produce of many horticultural crops especially fruits. They help in maintenance of cell wall structure. Being an important constituent of cell wall, in the form of calcium pectate, it helps in maintenance of cell wall structure. Antioxidants are highly beneficial in extending the shelf-life of fruits besides maintaining the quality. Similarly, some enzymes play a key role in preserving the fruit quality and prolonging its market life. As some fruits are catergorized under ‘Low volume high value fruits’, it is essential to extend their shel-flife for reducing the post-harvest losses of fruits and also to reap better remuneration. Thus, it becomes indispensable to review the role of Ca, anti-oxidants and enzymes which are beneficial in keeping the harvested produce afresh for a relatively longer period.

Micronutrients play an active role in the plant metabolic processes from cell wall development to respiration, photosynthesis, chlorophyll formation, enzyme activity, hormone synthesis, nitrogen fixation, etc. Micronutrient requirements of crops are relatively small. Use of chemical fertilizers with accompanied changes in soil management practices resulted in steady decrease in micronutrient content in soil. The future of agriculture depends on sustainable management of land, water, flora, fauna and the atmosphere. In order to produce 240 m tones of food grains by the end of twentieth century, removal of major nutrients from soil will be to the tune of 7 m tones N, 2.7 m tones P2O5 and 11.2 m tones K2O. Similarly, a good amount of secondary (Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients would also be removed proportionately which should be compensated through application of well rotten FYM or micronutrient fertilizers in soil.

4.1 Introduction

Pests and plant diseases pose serious risks to global agriculture (Strange and Scott, 2005; Oerke, 2006). Plant diseases and pests are the natural disasters that can impede a plant’s normal growth throughout the plant’s whole life cycle, from seed formation to seedling growth and may result in plant death (Liu and Wang, 2021). Diseases reduce yields in a number of important crops by 21–30% globally (Savary et al., 2019), whereas insect infestations reduce crop output by 30–33% annually (Kumar et al., 2019). For the management, accurate disease diagnosis and pest identification are essential. Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques can be a crucial addition to enable the monitoring of plant diseases and pests at a coarse scale, as traditional field scouting of these pests and diseases is labor-intensive, subject to bias, and typically shows low efficiency (Mahlein, 2016).

Agriculture is undergoing a revolution because of artificial intelligence (AI), which is replacing outdated techniques with more effective ones (Talaviya et al., 2020). AI intervention in agriculture is helping farmers increase productivity and reduce adverse environmental effects (Sujawat, 2021). The application of AI techniques has created new opportunities for scientific research as well as new instruments and ways for handling and analyzing vast volumes of data. An important benefit of AI is its capacity to spot patterns in data that are not immediately obvious or available to humans. This allows for previously unattainable new insights and discoveries (Angermueller et al., 2016; Eraslan et al., 2019). AI is currently changing how we work and live, yet its influence on pathology and entomology research is still underappreciated. AI’s cost-effectiveness, precision, quickness of performance, and adaptability are its core concepts in agriculture (Eli-Chukwu, 2019). In agriculture, artificial intelligence not only helps farmers use their abilities, but it also guides them to obtain better quality and larger yields with fewer resources (Khandelwal and Chavhan, 2019). AI-based technology addresses the issues that agricultural sector faces and helps to increase efficiency in all areas. These challenges include crop harvesting, irrigation, soil content sensitivity, crop monitoring, weeding, harvesting, and establishing.

Abstract

Natural plant products are known to prevent several deleterious diseases. This potency of plants to act as medicinal therapeutic source is due to the presence of various bioactive compounds including alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids and glucosinolates (GSLs). Among array of these compounds, GSLs are important class of plant secondary metabolites. The mechanical or physical injury to plant leads to the activation of this “GSL-myrosinase” system resulting in the formation bioactive compounds viz., thiocyanates, nitriles, isothiocyanates, and epithionitriles. Out of these compounds, isothiocyanates (ITCs) are well known for their therapeutic properties. Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) commonly known as “mustard oil” is one of the naturally occurring ITC which is derived from hydrolysis of sinigrin, the major GSL in cruciferous vegetables like horseradish, wasabi, brussels radish etc. Due to high bioavailability in human body, it has been widely studied for its important bioactivities. Therefore, this review highlights the significant biomodulatory effects viz., antioxidant, antimutagenic, in vitro, in vivo anticancer, antimicrobial, and insecticidal activities of AITC.