eChapters

19.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Eurasia and introduced in America, Australia and South Africa.

• Grown throughout dry parts of India

19.2. Economic importance

• Whole plant - Useful for rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting

• Used in cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, emollient

• As an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

19.3. Climate

• Well in tropical and subtropical climate

23.1. Origin and distribution

• Native from South Eastern Asia (Indonesia) to Australia

• Indian mulberry

23.2. Economic importance

• Widely used for health restorative properties, over years popularity diminished due to unpleasant smell from ripened fruit.

• Helps in reducing high blood pressure and cures heart disease and stroke due to presence of scopoletin which dilate blood vessels resulting in lower blood pressure.

• Stimulates body’s production of nitric oxide, a chemical which allows the blood vessel to dilate more easily and more elastic.

• Anti-inflammatory and histamine inhibiting effects, excellent for promotion of smooth joint movement.

24.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in hills of South Western India, Indo-Malaya region.

24.2. Economic importance

• Used to improve appetite and digestion and treat stomachache, heart burn, indigestion, intestinal gas, diarrhoea and cholera.

• Fruits are stomachic and carminative.

• Used for lung problems including Asthma, bronchitis and cough.

24.3. Varieties

• Vellanikara -1 (Visvum tippili) and Yercaud (Pl) - 9.

24.4. Climate

• Elevation between 100 and 1000 m.

• Shade intensity: 20-25%.

• Lower elevations with high humidity

25.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Western and South Western Europe, Western and Central Asia and Erstwhile USSR countries.

25.2. Economic importance

• Dried leaves constitute the drug, digitoxin and gitoxin.

• Used to treat congestive heart failure and heart rhythm problems.

• Increase blood flow throughout the body and reduce swelling in hands and ankles.

25.3. Varieties

• Strain E.C. 115996 - Higher foliage yield with high glycoside content

25.4. Climate

• Requires a cool and mild climate (20-30°C)

• Well in hill slopes at elevation of above 1250 m above msl

25.5. Soil

• Well drained sandy soil rich in organic matter and slightly acidic (pH 5.5-6.5)

26.1. Origin

• Native to Dalmatia (Yugoslavia), Herzegovina and Montenegro.

26.1. Economic importance

• Natural insecticide from dried flower heads.

• Seed or achene contains Pyrethrin I, II, Cinerin I, II, Jasmolin I, II collectively called Pyrethrins.

26.2. Varieties and types

• KKL-1 released from TNAU.

• Hansa and Jhelum released from CIMAP, Lucknow.

• Sel-2 - developed at the Kodaikanal Centre of CIMAP.

• Two types

? Dalmatian pyrethrum: C. cinerariaefolium, grown on the Easte Coast of the Adriatic Sea.

? Japanese pyrethrum also derived from C. cinerariaefolium.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Grows wild in temperate Himalayas.

• Common in Kashmir Valley, Shimla and Nainital Hills.

• Commercially cultivated in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

6.2. Economic importance

• Sweet worm wood or annual worm wood

• Chemical constituents - Artimisinin

• Commonly used in garlands, bouquets and religious offerings in most part of the country.

• Leaves and flowers contain essential oil valued for its exquisite and delicate aroma and is used in high grade perfumes and cosmetics.

Fruits have been one of the earliest foods of mankind. Ancient Indian texts like Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, religious books and puranas are replete with mention of various kinds of fruits. The mango is believed to have been grown for more than 4000 years. Mention of apple, the forbidden fruit, in the Holy Bible is well known. The date-palm is recorded as the fruit crop grown by mankind since 7000 BC. The first book in the world on fruit culture is said to have been the one written on litchi in 1056 AD. In the earlier period of human civilization, fruits served both as food and medicine. Fruits, nuts and tubers were the staples for early wanderers and gatherers. The settled agriculture made mankind more dependent on cereals, pulses and oilseeds for staples and fruits, vegetables and nuts became more a medicine than food.

Many evolutionary and anthropological changes occurred in course of time with changing food habits. At every stage of major change, food habits determined the life expectancy. After completing a full cycle or helix, time has returned to focus on fruits and vegetables again as food, from a stand point of health and wellbeing. From being trees of wild and forests in earlier period, fruit crops became confined to palaces and orchards of Kings in medieval period. In modern Era, it came to stay as commercial commodities dictating the terms of trade. Due to its growing commercial importance the governments across the globe focused to expand the area under fruit crops and cross border trade in several fruits and vegetables. Horticulture research started prioritizing the traits in fruits that determine the economics of trade. In line with these developments, Indian government assigned great significance to horticultural crops since 8^th five-year plan period, and the allocation for horticultural research was increased to `110.2 crores from `31.96 crores in the previous plan. During the 10^th five-year plan period in 2005-06, the National Horticulture Mission was started. As the net outcome of these efforts, the area under fruit crops increased from 2.87 million ha in 1991-92 to 6.48 million ha in 2016-17. The production increased from 28.63 million tonnes to 92.85 million tonnes and productivity from 9.96 tonnes/ha to 14.33 tonnes/ha during the same period (Anon, 2017).

Out of the total value of output of agricultural crops, fruits and vegetables contribute the lion’s share of 23%. The major fruit crops producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal and Chattisgarh. The major fruit crops grown are banana, mango, citrus fruits (sweet orange, mandarin, lime & lemons), peach, guava, papaya, pomegranate, sapota, apple, pineapple, ber, litchi, avocado, etc. Several minor crops like jackfruit, aonla, bael, jamun, custard apple, fig, karonda, phalsa, carambola, etc., are also grown. Some exotic fruit crops like dragon fruit, kiwi, durian, Malayan apple, rambutan, etc., are also getting imported either due to its extra ordinary taste or exotic flavor.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Southern Mediterranean.

• Distributed in India, Asia, Australia, Canada, Europe, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Spain, USA

9.2. Economic importance

• Commonly called as common thyme or garden thyme.

• The active principle alkaloid is thymol.

• Constituents - triterpinoid saponins, flavones, ursolic acid (1.5% in tops), coffeic acid, tannins and resins.

• Oil of thyme - colourless, yellow or red liquid with a characteristic pleasant odour, and a pungent taste.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Australia and Malaysia.

• Introduced by British people in Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu for fuel and timber.

• Commercially grown in Seychelles, Java, South Africa, Guatemala, Congo and Brazil.

• Eucalyptus tereticornis - Commercial species

• Major growing states - UP, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

12.2. Economic importance

• Known as spotted gum tree.

• Source of citronellol, hydroxycitronellal and menthol.

• Contains 0.5-4% essential oil; rich in citronella.

• Essential oil - Therapeutic and ayurvedic benefits.

• Used in soaps, mouth wash liquids, massage oils, air fresheners and bug repellents

Cherimoya is considered as the most esteemed of the fruits of the genus Annona (family Annonaceae). A. cherimola Mill., because of its limited distribution, has acquired few colloquial names, and most are merely local variations in spelling, such as chirimoya, cherimolia, chirimolla, cherimolier, cherimoyer. The cherimoya is believed to be indigenous to the interandean valleys of Ecuador, Colombia and Bolivia. It is cultivated in Australia, Hawai, Brazil, Mexico, India, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Spain, Costa Rica, Africa and Argentina. In India it is found growing in states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, (Nilgiris and Palani hills), Karnataka (the Nandi hills) and Andhra Pradesh (Telangana region).

It bears fruits with skin which is thin or thick, may be smooth with fingerprint-like markings or covered with conical or rounded protuberances. The sweet, juicy, white flesh is melting, subacid and very fragrant. The fruit is of a primitive form with spirally arranged carpels, resembling a raspberry. Each segment of flesh surrounds a single hard black bean-like seed.

Cultivars: Fingerprinted, Smooth, Tuberculate, Mammilate and Umbonate are the cultivars having different shapes, texture and morphology.

Uses

The flesh of the ripe cherimoya is most commonly eaten out of-hand or scooped with a spoon from the cut open fruit. It really needs no embellishment but some people in Mexico like to add a few drops of lime juice. Occasionally it is added to fruit salads or used for making sherbet or ice cream. Colombians strain out the juice, add a slice of lemon and dilute with ice-water to make a refreshing soft drink. The fruit has been fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage (Morton, 1987). In Jamaica, the dried flowers have been used as flavoring for snuff. All species of Annona can produce seed oil. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.

The inoculum dosage and method of application determines the efficacy of biofertilizers. The quantity of biofertilizers to be applied depends on the type of crop, seed rate and soil edaphic factors. There are 3 methods for inoculation of biofertilizers

Seed treatment: One packet containing inoculant (200 g) is mixed with 200 ml of rice gruel or 40 % gum arabic solution to make a slurry (Fig. 23). Then the seeds required for an acre are mixed in the slurry in such a manner that they have a uniform coating of the inoculant over the seeds. Then, the inoculated seeds are shade dried for 30 minutes. The shade dried seeds should be sown within 24 hours. One packet of the inoculant (200 g) is normally sufficient to treat 10 kg of seeds.

22.1. Aim

To estimate the fruit firmness.

22.2. Apparatus/machineries/equipments required

• Magness Taylor Pressure Tester

• Penetrometer

22.3. Theory and principle

Fruit firmness is an important feature of maturity. During ripening, fruits may soften and become too soft at the overripe stage. The changes are detected by touching or by using devices like texture analyzers and pressure testers to measure texture of fruits and vegetable.

It has been well established that the biofertilizers are beneficial to plants and are cost-effective inputs for sustainable production system. However, there are some constraints with respect to its production, which are presented below:

10.1 Production constraints

10.1.1 Raw material

Eventhough there are large number of biofertilizer formulations, only few are considered as good carrier materials for biofertilizers such as peat and lignite. Moreover, its availability in India is limited and the quality is lacking for these carrier materials. Hence, a cost effective and locally available material with increased shelf-life is the need of the hour.

10.1.2 Specificity and availability of strains

As the microbial strains used as biofertilizers are specific to soil and agro-ecological conditions, availability of specific strains for the specific host and soil edaphic factors are inadequate.

25.1. Aim

To estimate the ash content in fresh and processed products.

25.2. Theory and principle

Estimation of ash contents is important as it gives an idea about the presence of minerals in the food samples. Determination of ash is also required to evaluate fruit chutneys as the maximum limit for ash in this product shall not exceed 5% as per FPO specifications.

25.3. Apparatus/instruments/equipment

1. Crucibles

2. Muffle furnace

3. Sensitive balance

4. Heating plate

5. Desiccators

Vegetables are important accompaniments for the main course of meal, which is by and large a carbohydrate-based food (wheat, rice or millets). It not only makes the meal more palatable, but also wholesome with its diverse color, smell and taste. More importantly it facilitates the easy movement of food through the bowel, better absorption by the body and till the elimination. Besides hunger satiation, it helps to maintain the health by providing the essential micronutrients and prevent lifestyle disorders.

As a nutritious food, it provides the vitamins, minerals and phyto-chemicals which are required in small quantities for physiological processes and metabolic activities. They are cheap sources of beta-carotene, vitamin-B complex, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, etc. They are rich in minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, etc., and dietary fibres. It has now been proved that minerals are better absorbed by the body in presence of several other factors of plant matrix, than as mineral supplements. It also provides small amounts of carbohydrates and proteins. Vegetables are important as protective foods as their consumption prevents many diseases. They are important sources of antioxidants and phytochemicals. Each vegetable has been found to have certain specific phyto-chemical which besides being a free radical scavenger, is also inhibitor of certain conditions responsible for disease development.

Among the vegetables, tubers like cassava, potato and sweet potato being highly rich in carbohydrates, served as staples for several countries for very long time, in the history. For the same reason, there are a variety of food products based on these tubers. Others like carrot, radish, beetroot, and turnip in root vegetables, onion and garlic among bulbous crops; tomato, brinjal (egg plant), okra and capsicum among fruit vegetables serve as sources of phytochemicals (carotenoids, anthcyanins, lycopene, betalain, capsicum, bassiniloids, etc.). Beans, peas, cowpea, and other leguminous vegetables are important sources of proteins and leafy vegetables (greens) contribute to the much-needed minerals, vitamins and fibre (roughages) in the diet. Allicin and diallyl disulphide found in onion and garlic control blood cholesterol besides being anti-bacterial. The diphenylamine in onion is effective against diabetes. The ‘Charantin’ found in bitter gourd have hypoglycaemic activity. Diosgenin in yams are used for manufacture of contraceptive drugs. Cole crops like cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel sprouts and sprouting broccoli have anti-carcinogenic properties mainly due to hydrolysed glucosinolate derived isothiocynates and indoles. Similarly, health benefits and curative properties of many indigenous and exotic vegetables have been mentioned in several classical texts of India and China.

Many types of containers are used for growing plants in nurseries. These are clay pots, plastic pots, fiber pots, wooden pots, etc. Generally, the type of container to be used for growing a plant depends upon the kind of plant, objective of growing, choice of grower, etc. With advancement of technology, the container-grown plants are widely adopted, practiced by the nurserymen. The advantages of container grown plants are they are not prone to damage during packaging and transport. These are widely used for many fruit and ornamental plants. The different types of container and their characteristic features are as follows.

• Clay pots: Well-baked earthenware pots are used for raising plants. These are available in different shapes and sizes. On the basis of shape and size; these are named by pela, parali, kundi, nand, khobada, etc. Porous nature of the clay pots permits aeration, and water movement. Pot made with clay soil and well-baked will last longer than those made with sand or loamy soils. Before using, these are dipped in water for some period to soak the water in the pot itself sufficiently. However, earthen pots are heavy in weight, possibilities of breakage during potting and repotting and hence are less durable.

54.1. Aim

To determine crude fibre in given samples.

54.2. Theory

Fibres can be classified into four categories like crude fibre (cellulose); acid detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin); neutral detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses) and total dietary fibre (Cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses + pectic substances). Crude fibre is the organic residue of a sample. A fat free sample is treated with boiling sulphuric acid and subsequently with sodium hydroxide. The residue after subtraction of ash is regarded as crude fibre.

54.3. Reagents/ Apparatus/Glassware

1. 0.255 N Sulphuric acid solution

2. 0.313 N Sodium hydroxide solution

3. 10% Potassium sulphate solution

4. Ethanol

Problem- Prepare a layout plan for establishing on ideal mango orchard near Varanasi city in 2ha area under high density planting. Calculate the number of plants needed for planting and amount of DAP and sulphate of potash heeded or planting. Also mention the name of cultivars for this region under HDP (200:100:200 NPK g/plant)

Purpose: It is important that the plants occupy the same position where the pegs were placed in the field. At the time of planting the tree the peg is removed first followed by pit making to receive the plant. The plant may be with the ball of earth or without the ball of earth. While planting the tree in the pit there is every possibility that plant may not occupy the same position where the pegs were originally placed. In order to overcome this problem planting board is used. Use of a planting board ensures the planting of the plant in the correct position.

Materials and equipments: Spade, khurpi, planting board, wooden pegs and chain.

Purpose: In propagation of fruit plants by any vegetative methods such as cuttings, budding and in to the selection of ‘mother plants” and “bud-wood”. Use of bud-wood or any other propagation material from high yielding, true to-type, disease free trees (mother plant) will ensure uniform behaviour of trees in the orchard. If possible, propagation material from a single source is used.

Bud-wood used for budding purpose from high yielding, true-to-type and disease free trees certified for the above character by a certifying agency is referred as ‘certified bud’

Procedure: By adopting the flow sheet given below, clean scion from healthy, productive plants, can be selected for vegetative propagation.