eChapters

1.1. Mango

1.1.1. Mango squash

Step 1 : Selection of fruits

Step 2 : Washing

Step 3 : Pulping

Step 4 : Preparation of syrup (sugar + water + acid, heating just to dissolve)

Step 5 : Straining

Step 6 : Mixing with juice

Step 7 : Addition of preservative (0.6 g KMS (Potassium metabisulfite)/litre squash)

Step 8 : Bottling

Step 9 : Capping

Step 10 : Storage

1.1.2. Mango RTS (ready-to-serve)

Step 1 : Fruit (pulp/juice)

Step 2 : Mixing with strained juice

1.1. Origin and distribution

• The oldest known beverage, tea is native of China (Between China and Burma) in South East Asia.

• Known to the Chinese as early as 2737BC, but it was a popular drink in England in 1664 AD.

• Original species, which produce tea, were C.assamica (Assam jats), C.sinensis (China jats) and their natural hybrid, C.assamica subspecies lasiocalyx (Indo China or cambod type).

• Chinese (Small leaf) tea - C. sinensis var. sinensis: Originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives

• Chinese Western Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea

• Indian Assam (Large leaf) tea- C. sinensis var. assamica: Originated from Camellia taliensis in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet

• Chinese Southern Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea: Hybridized with the closely related species Camellia taliensis

• Difference between Assam and China types

Seed

A seed is a mature ovule consisting of an embryo together with stored food, all enclosed by a protective coat. It is product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which results as a consequence of fertilization and some growth within the mother plant formation of seed completes the cycle of reproduction. The embryo develops from zygote and the seed coat from the integument of ovule. A seed has three main parts these are seed coat, endosperm and embryo. Embryo includes the root, the cotyledon and embryonic leaves. Seed is located inside fruit and a fruit is a mature ovary. In broad sense any plant part which is used for commercial multiplication of crop is called seed. Thus in case of potato stem and tuber are also known as seed. Improved seed results in (1) Better germination (2) Vigorous seedling growth (3) Higher crop stand (4) Better quality of produce (5) Ultimately in higher crop yield.

Development of seeds: Successful pollination and fertilization are the prerequisites to produce a viable seed. During pollination the pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma and get stuck there in the sticky fluid secreted by the stigma. The fluid contains sugar which induces germination of pollen grains. The pollen tube grows downward through the style in the ovary until it reaches the embryo sac and discharges two male gametes-one is fused with a female gamete and forms the zygote (2n) and the other is united with two pollar nuclei to produce endosperm (3n). The zygote develops and gives rise to embryo embedded in nutritive tissue developed from endosperm. The nucellus tissues surrounding these structures provide necessary energy for their proper development. Like fruit, the seed also exhibits sigmoid and sometimes double sigmoid pattern of growth. Various changes occur during the course of seed development and the sequences of development may vary from species to species keeping the basic theme unaltered.

A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. In broad sense, seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Seed technological point of view, seed may be sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). It also refers to propagating materials of healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, sets, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose. Quality seed, therefore, can be defined as the seed which fulfills the minimum requirements of getentic and physical purity, seed germination and vigour freedom from weeds and other crop seeds and other relevant seed standards.

In tomato seed extraction is the very important operation. Tomato seed can be extracted by following way.

1. Fermentation methods: Red ripe fruits should be picked and crushed in non metallic pots. Profuse foam formation indicates that fermentation is completed. Fermentation of seed material should not be prolonged beyond 72hr to get seed of high germination. Preferably the seed should be washed free of pulp after 48hr require temperature uses.
2. Acid treatment methods: In case of urgency seed may be washed by using 1.0 to 1.5 liters of 35 to 38% concentrated HCL/g tomato fruit pulp. Fermentation is completed in about 30 minutes. Clean seed are obtained by stirring and washing procedure are quickly as possible.
3. Alkali treatment methods: In case Alkalie 10% sodium bicarbonate is mixed in equal volume of pulp or 300 g washing soda dissolve in 4 liter of boiling water is sufficient for 4 liter fruit pulp.
4. Mechanical methods: It is used for large scale operations put the ripe fruits into the mechanical seed extractor for crushing and separation of the seed and gel from the pulp. By acid 0.8% solution of acetic acid for 24hr at or below 21⁰C (1kg seed/10 liter of acetic acid).

Vegetable crops: A seed is borne on fruit and fruit is a mature ovary and ovary is a typical part of flower. Flower in angiosperm, consists of four parts these are calyx/sepal, corolla/petals, androecium/stamens and gynocium/pistil, outer whorl of flower is collectively referred to as calyx. The individual components of calyx are called as sepal. Petals are collectively referred to as corolla. Petal is a unit of second inner whorl after sepals. Stamen is part of flower bearing the male reproductive parts composed of anther and filaments. Pistil is part of flower bearing the female reproductive parts composed of stigma style and ovary.

Seed Production Techniques in Vegetable Crops

Share (%) of F₁ hybrids- Cabbage 85%, Watermelon 70%, Okra 23%, Tomato 80%, Chilli 80%, Cauliflower 50%. Among the Asian countries, India is the 2^nd largest production of hand pollinated hybrid seed in vegetables.

Coriander is used by man since long as coriander seeds were found in Egyptian tombs of 960 BC. Further, Persia grew coriander 3,000 years ago and it added fragrance to Hanging Gardens of Babylon. In 3^rd century BC, Romans also found coriander seed as an excellent seasoning for popular foods.

Besides seeds, fresh leaves are being used for garnishing of food in many Latin American, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Indian dishes since long. Fresh coriander leaves are also known as Chinese Parsely. In India, coriander seed is used almost daily in scores of curries for flavouring and leaves for garnishing. Coriander is a native of Mediterranean region.

Objectives

1. To know about the seed treatment of spices and condiments.
2. To know the sowing method and time of spices and condiments.

Seed treatments or seed dressing: Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide, or a combination of both, to seeds so as to disinfect and disinfect them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in conditioned water, etc. The seed treatment is done to achieve the following benefits.

Advantages of seed treatment

1. Protects germinating seeds and seedlings against soil and seed borne pathogens/insects.
2. Seed germination enhancement.
3. Early and uniform establishment and growth
4. Enhances nodulation in legume crop.
5. Better than soil and foliar application.
6. Uniform crop stand, even in adverse conditions (less/high moisture)

21.1 Introduction

There are a number of field, vegetable, fruit and ornamental crops that are cultivated using asexual or vegetative parts such as stems, roots, modified flower etc. This is a heterogeneous group of plants and can be further categorized into four groups for ease in understanding the breeding methods applied to them. They are:

Group 1: Flowerless or Sterile

This group either does not bear flowers or if bears, they are sterile and do not set seed, e.g., ginger, mango ginger, turmeric, garlic, betel, many yams, etc.

Group 2: Apomicts

Apomixis has been reported in over 300 genera. But stable apomixis has been reported only in a few cultivated plants like meadow grass, citrus, mango, raspberry, etc.

Group 3: Flowers but Seed-Set Rare

In this group flowering takes place under specific situations but seed-set is limited, e.g., potato, sweet potato, sugarcane, etc.

12.1 Introduction

Allowing certain plants from the population to reproduce, while barring others, comprises selection. This permission for reproduction may be granted by nature or by the plant breeder. In the other words, both nature and breeder exert selection pressure. Natural selection operates through differences of fertility among the adult individuals of parent generation as well as through differences of viability among the individuals of offspring generation. Artificial selection, i.e., the selection from action of the plant breeder in the choice of parents, produces its change of gene frequency by separating the adult individuals of parent generation into two groups, viz., the selected and the discarded, that differ in gene frequency. So, selection simply implies the retaining of desirable types or culling of unwanted or undesirable types.

Phytochemicals from various parts of a plant or tree such as the leaves, the flowers, the seeds, the barks, the roots and the shrubs can be isolated. Once one comes in from collecting plants in the field, it is good idea to freeze them immediately in a freezer at – 20°C or a commercial freezer held at – 80°C (Kaufman et al., 1999). According to Harborne (1984, 1998), fresh plant tissues should be used for phytochemical analysis and the material should be plunged into boiling alcohol within minutes of its collection. Alternatively, plants may be dried before extraction.

Homoeopathic treatment is based on an overall understanding of the symptoms in the body and mind created by a sickness. Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of the homoeopathic science of healing, after years of experiment and trial, came to finding that symptom - similarity is the curative method of medically curable diseases. In paragraph 25 of the 'Organon of Medicine⁷, he formulated the principle of 'like cures like' in these words: " Now, however, in all careful trials, pure experience, the sole and infallible oracle of the healing art, teaches us that actually that medicine which, in its action on the healthy human body, has demonstrated its power of producing the greatest number of symptoms similar to those observable in the case of disease under treatment, does also, rapidly, radically and permanently remove the totality of the symptoms of this morbid state, that is to say, the whole disease present, and change it into health; and that all medicines cure, without exception, those diseases whose symptoms most really resemble their own, and leave none of them uncured."

The aforesaid indicates the importance of symptoms in the diagnosis and treatment in homoeopathy. If a drug creates a symptom during the course of proving, then it can be cured by a potencised dose of the drug; whatever may be the name of the disease. For instance, in proving GLONOINE produces a bursting, throbbing sensation in the head in a healthy person. Conversely any surging of the blood to the head requires GLONOINE. This can happen in a sun - stroke, in high blood pressure, in cerebro - spinal meningitis. KALI BICROMICUM produces in proving, a tough, stringy discharge of mucus. In homoeopathy, KALI BICROMICUM cures a similar discharge whether from the nose inwards from mouth, from fauces, from pharynx, from larynx, trachea, bronchi, vagina, and uterus or from any mucus membrane. CACTUSGRANDIFLORUS produces in pure form and gross doses, constriction of the heat and a constriction, anywhere in the body, which is like an iron band being tightened. The same sensation of constriction leads us to the use of CACTUS in a homoeopathic dose and it need not be confined to the heart. There can be constriction of the scalp, in the oesophagus, in the chest, in the abdomen, bladder, uterus, vagina or rectum.

The selection of the site has great importance for the establishment of a fruit orchard successfully. Establishment of orchard is a long term activity with huge investment. Hence, any mistake committed during site selection, it is difficult to rectify it later. Successful orchard is not only related with yield but also its economic production and efficient disposal of produce. For economic orchard establishment; some of the points which need to be considered, while selection of site. These are as follows.

1. Climate and soil: These are two important natural factors, which decide the success or failure of orchards. Before selection of site, climate and soil requirement for selected fruit crops needs to be studied thoroughly and accordingly site must be selected. On the other hand if a site has already been selected; then fruit crop selection needs to be done as per the existing climate and soil of that selected site.
2. Topography: Slope of site more than 15% makes the land almost unsuitable for cultivation. Land with 4% slope may be kept clean without much loss. Uneven land involves heavy expenditure in leveling. Southern slopes are generally warmer and affect the plant growth in a manner different from the northern slopes. It is due to the difference in quantum of receiving sunlight. Hence, the site with southern slopes may be selected for sun loving plants.

ABSTRACT

Apot culture experiment was conducted on tomato with cadmium and lead to identify the selective retention sites of the metals. For this a completely randomized design with five treatments and four replications were laid out at the College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara. The different levels of treatment ranged from 0.5 to 2.0 mg kg -1 soil. Cadmium and lead were directly supplied as a water-soluble source through cadmium chloride and lead nitrate respectively. In tomato the growth and fruiting was permitted only at lower levels of cadmium application. At 1.5 mg kg-1 soil, fruiting failed. While at 2.0 mg kg-1 soil, the very establishment of plant was totally affected. At higher levels of application, cadmium preferred to get accumulated in roots while on the contrary at lower levels, cadmium uptake increased in shoots than in roots with the least content of the metal in fruits. However, in the case of lead, all levels of application in soil permitted growth and fruiting. With increase in rate of lead application, significant selective retention was observed in roots (1.48-6.69 ppm), shoot (0.29-1.62 ppm) and fruits (0.39-1.45 ppm). On comparison of retention sites of lead in tomato, it could be seen that fruits maintained the maximum lead uptake (637.2-2933.0 mg pot-1). Hence, the consumption of such tomato fruits contaminated with heavy metals may result in kidney damage, lack of memory, dissolution of phosphorus in the bones etc.

Acts especially on the portal system, with venous congestion. Stasis and thereby ptosis of viscera and weariness and misery. Weakness, yellow complexion, bearing-down sensation, especially in women, upon whose organism it has most pronounced effect. Pains extend down to back, chills easily. Tendency to abortion. Hot flashes at menopause with weakness and perspiration. Upward tendency of its symptoms. Easy fainting/ Ball" sensation in inner parts. Sepia acts best on brunettes. All pains are from below up. One of the most important uterine remedies. Tubercular patients with chronic hepatic troubles and uterine reflexes. Feels cold even in warm room.

The most important indications of Sepia are in the problems of women relating to the uterus. It has been called the best uterine remedy available. The patient feels that all her internal organs would come out of the pelvic region. She has to sit with legs crossed to relieve this feeling. Sepia is a chronic remedy. It can take care of long standing problems.

It is caused by the entry of the bacteria in to the blood.

The pathogenetic bacteria or their products usually enter the blood through some break in the skin or mucous membrane. Although sepsis may be more easily traced to infection through tears in the parturient canal and other wounds, yet many cases have their origin in the respiratory organs, digestive tract including the teeth and other organs or tissues. Suppuration in any part of the body like otitis, dental or rectal fistula may give rise to sepsis. Gonorrhea or the infections may be directly the cause of sepsis or indirectly by leaving channels for the invading organisms. The most frequent organisms are the staphylococci, although ten or twelve others have been found. Sepsis affects both sexes and all ages.

In the pyemic cases, the abscesses, emboli, thrombi, degeneration of the surrounding tissues, etc., were found most frequently in the lungs then kidneys, spleen and liver. Changes found: blood dark and disintegrated; spleen large and soft; fatty degeneration of the heart; kidney large, pale with prechynmatous changes; liver large with fatty degeneration.

Introduction

Research setting is basically a functional social ecology along with research objectives and condition wherein all possible socio-economic and communication processes are generated, and again gets regenerated. The researcher seeks to throw a spotlight on the implications and behavioral patterns of people who reside in the subject region and who are usual of the greater community. In this chapter, an in-depth review of the socio-demographic background of the local population in a rural setting has been provided.

4.1. Area of the study

The present research study was taken up in two states, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

MALE STERLITY, or failure to fertilize female egg cells, may be due to several causes. In some cases the trouble is due to an emotional factor, such as a mental block. It may be caused by an absence or atrophy of the testes, or perhaps by some obstruction in the male genital organs. Infections involving the 'genital organs may result in the production of unhealthy or even dead sperm cells. In such cases special tests may locate the seat of the trouble, which may be treated surgically.

FEMALE STERLITY, or failure to have children may arise from several different causes. Sometimes the trouble is due to the husband.

The ovum remains viable and capable of being fertilized after it is expelled from the ovary probably no longer than 24 hours. Therefore, sperm must be available soon after ovulation if fertilization is to take place. On the other hand, a few sperm can remain fertile in the female reproductive tract for up to 72 hours, although most of them for not more than 24 hours. Therefore fertilization to take place, intercourse usually must occur sometime between 1 to 2 days before ovulation and up to 1 day after ovulation

Sexual propagation through seeds is a fundamental method for producing horticultural crops, rootstocks, and planting material. This chapter explains seed structure, quality, viability, dormancy, germination, and factors affecting successful seedling establishment. Different types of seed dormancy and methods for overcoming dormancy are discussed, including scarification, stratification, chemical treatments, temperature management, and appropriate moisture conditions. Seed testing and quality considerations are important for obtaining uniform and healthy plants. The chapter also emphasizes the influence of temperature, oxygen, water, light, and substrate conditions on germination. Understanding seed biology enables students and growers to produce vigorous seedlings and establish reliable nursery and crop-production systems.

Description and Distribution
Shallot belongs to the onion and garlic family and is similar in properties to those of garlic. It is a native of Palestine and is cultivated in the USA, some European countries and in Indian gardens for its bulbs and green leaves. Clusters of greenish-white or red cloves occur at the base of its hollow cylindrical leaves. A variety of Shallot, smaller and with larger number of cloves, is exported to Sri Lanka and Malaysia from Chennai, in Tamil Nadu, India.
Economic Importance
Shallot is gradually gaining importance, as is seen from the export of the same from India during 1994-95. There is much scope for its export development provided its cultivation is stepped up gradually. The encouraging export performance during 1994-95 can be seen from the following table (Table 19).

Morphological characteristics

It is an annual/perennial herb with prostrate spreading branches in all directions. The root system is deep. Leaflets are 2.5-5 cm long, elliptical, oblong and rounded at base. Leaves are densely clothed with white appressed and long spreading hairs. In nature, seedlings appear after 2-3 showers during July-August. Generally, the seedlings are abundant under the canopy of trees or shrubs. The young seedling grows straight and produces lateral branches during first week of August. The lateral branches spread in all directions. The flowering starts during first week of August. Fruit formation takes place in the last week of August, while flowering still continues. The dispersal of the seeds takes place from September to December. Plant dries during November-December.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are blue in colour and axillary in position. They are either solitary or in pairs on the long stalk. Styles are two and each is bifid. Fruit is globose with four-valved capsule containing dark brown to black smooth seeds. The flower colour varies from dark purple to whitish-purple.

Distribution

Plant is commonly found growing in open and grassy places, almost throughout India, ascending upto 1500 meter in the Himalayas. It is cultivated also in the sub-tropical parts of India, ascending upto 1800 meter elevation.

ABSTRACT

Cycas is the largest genus among cycads - the surviving remnants of an ancient line of plants of the early Mesozoic period. The IUCN has classified more than half of the 182 species of Cycadales as endangered, vulnerable or rare. The use of in vitro techniques could permit a way to conserve many of the endangered species. None of the in vitro studies has been successful in establishing a functional protocol for artificial propagation of cycads. The objective of the present investigation is to explore the possibilities of in vitro plant regeneration from megagametophyte explants of Cycas circinalis - the only species of Cycas grown in Kerala. Megagametophyte from the ovules of ten-year-old Cycas circinalis plant was used as explant. Standard tissue culture techniques were adopted for the in vitro culturing of the explant. The basal medium involved major salts of B5 and minor salts of MS media. Glutamine, casein hydrolysate, coconut water and megagametophyte extract were used as supplements. The plant growth regulators - Kn, BAP, 2iP, IAA, NAA and 2,4- D - were incorporated alone and in combinations. Highest percentage of shoot induction and highest average number of shoot buds per culture were observed in PGR combination involving Kn + BAP along with one of the auxins (2,4-D or NAA or IAA). Shoot buds developed did not show further growth even after one year. The protocol employed in the present investigation may lead to multiple shoot proliferation and help in large-scale propagation of Cycas circinalis.

Shrubbery-An area of cultivated shrubs in a parkor garden is known asshrubbery or any area in the garden fully solely devoted to the shrub plantation is called shrubbery. These shrubs are maintained in formal way therefore require regular training, pruning and clipping. Maintenance of shrubbery is easy and become less costly if planted properly considering following point (See plate 22).

• Selection of hardy shrubs.
• Shrubs having profuse flowering and beautiful foliage.
• Selection of shrub according to soil.
• Shrub having slow growing habit and required less pruning and management.

Annuals Border

In this type of border annuals are planted according to their height to beauty of the garden. Annuals border are found two types.

• Single face border.
• Double face border.

Single face border- In this type dwarf plant is kept on front of beds, medium height annuals are planted in the centre while the taller annuals are planted in the back.

Double face border- In this type tall annuals are planted in the center and medium and dwarf annuals are planted in both sides of tall annuals so that full view can be seen from both side.

India is endowed with rich treasure of aromatic plants of great industrial importance in its forests, wetlands and marine areas. India is among the 12 mega biodiversity centers of the world, which accounts for about 8 percent of the total biodiversity recorded so far. Despite of having only 2.4 percent land area of the world, India has been divided into 16 Agroclimatic zones having about 49000 plant species. Out of which 15000 species belong to medicinal and aromatic plants group. Out of these, 1500 medicinal and aromatic plants have identified, but only 500 species are commonly used in the preparation of ISM&H drugs. Besides, more than 150 plant species have been found endangered and are at the verge of extinction.
Indian export of raw drugs based on medicinal and aromatic plants has grown steadily at 25 % over the last few years. WHO has forecasted that the global market for herbal products is expected to be around US$ 5 trillion by 2050, and further emphasized the need for revitalization, and expansion of traditional system of medicines. But merely 150 medicinal and aromatic plants species are being reported to be used commercially on fairly large scale (Chandel et al.,1996).
The global market in plant based pharmaceuticals in growing rapidly day-byday leading to a sizeable increase in demand for herbal plants. Even today, 80-90% of naturally growing wild populations have remained the main source of raw materials used for drugs in India without applying scientific management techniques essential to sustain the growth and preserve useful properties essential to determine the efficacy of the medicines. The wild source is now being depleted and exploited without scientific harvesting techniques/ practices.

Aromatic plants are the life line of essential oil trades all over the world. India is considered to be botanical garden on account of prevalence of rich plant biodiversity owing to varied topography and wide range of climatic conditions present in different parts of the country About 1300 plant species have been reported to be of aromatic value and 80 plant species are commercially grown and in high demand, but only 42 plant species
are being exploited by modern pharmaceutical and essential oil industries as a source of raw materials for a range of natural perfumes, flavours, cosmetics, food and flavouring and aroma–therapy.
Plant-genetic diversity is the key component of agricultural production system, and no natural evolutionary adjustment of the system to changing environment and biotic conditions would be possible without it. India is richly endowed with plant wealth, utilized either directly for cultivation or as source of useful traits for breeding improved varieties. Collection, conservation and sustainable use of available gene pool and their wild relatives require specific attention keeping in view their overall importance and significance in agriculture and food security vis-à-vis day–to-day needs.
Cultivation of aromatic plants having aroma due to presence of an essential
oil in their various parts needs to be made competitive against other seasonal crops, so that production from cultivated harvests are preferred over collections from the wild. There are possibilities of using the produce in cosmetic, perfumery and aromatherapy industries of several aromatic plants. So, the breeding strategy of aromatic crops should aim for improving the contents of therapeutic compounds, yield of grains, biomass yield, roots yield and oil quality & quantity.

The separation of essential oils responsible for odour/fine smell from different plantparts by gentle heating is known by centuries ago. A large number of such components being volatile are called as ‘Essential oils’. Presently, it also covers many of the less volatile constituents. The essential oils (extracts of the plant) with different types of flavours/odours are aromatic components, which can be separated by steam/hydro-distillation or extraction by solvents.
Essential oils largely contain terpenic compounds, made up of two or more isoprenyl units (C-5). Besides, a large number of other compounds which have nothing to do with isoprene units, have also been reported by various workers. Essential oils are of quite use in perfumes, flavour and aroma-therapy industries and their economic production is very much essential from farmers’ point of view. The optimum stage of harvest is very crucial for high quality and quantity of the essential oil from different parts of the plants (leaves, inflorescence, entire herb, roots, seeds, rhizomes etc.).
The quality of the essential oils largely depends on the kinds of the metals (copper, aluminium, mild steel, stainless steel) used in distillation unit, as some of the essential oils react with free acids present in the oil and thus imparting off-smell of aroma and colouration. Presently, distillation units made up of stainless steel are preferred which has no reaction to phenolic, acids, etc., and oils produced are very clean, less coloured and of high quality preferred by the cosmetic and perfumery industries engaged in formulation of various types of essence and scents.

Mangrove forests are ecologically significant and economically important (Kathiresan 2018). They provide ecosystem services worth at least US$ 1.6 billion each year and support coastal livelihoods worldwide (Costanza et al. 1997). They serve as the nursery, feeding and breeding grounds for crabs, prawns, molluscs, finfish, birds, reptiles and mammals. A large amount of global fish catches (up to 80%) is dependent on mangroves, thereby ensuring the food security of coastal people (Ellison 2008). The mangroves provide firewood, timber, cattle feed, honey, medicines and tourism development. They protect groundwater aquifers from seepage of seawater, thereby ensuring water security for coastal population. Mangrove forests remove coastal pollution particularly toxic heavy metals. They offer coastal protection against the fiery effects of natural calamities such as tsunami, storm surges, cyclone and floods (Kathiresan and Bingham 2001; Kathiresan and Qasim 2005; Kathiresan and Rajendran 2005). The potential of mangroves in carbon capture and sequestration is remarkable in mitigating the impacts of global warming and climate change (Kathiresan et al. 2013, 2014).

Imperfect assimilation and consequent defective nutrition, it goes further and produces neurasthenic states in consequence, and increased susceptibility to nervous stimuli and exaggerated reflexes. Diseases of bones, caries and necrosis. In TB it must be used with care, for here it may cause the absorption of scar tissue, liberate the disease, walled in, to new activities. It is a deep acting remedy and slow in action. It is meant for scrofulous children with large head, open fontanels and sutures, distended abdomen, slow in walking. Ill effects of vaccination. It is related to all fistulous openings. Ripens abscesses since it promotes suppuration.

Silica patient is cold, chilly, hugs the fire, wants plenty warm clothing, and hates drafts, hands and feet cold, worse in winter. Lack of vital heat. Prostration of mind and body. Great sensitiveness to taking cold. Intolerance of alcoholic stimulants/Ailments attended with pus formation.

In inflammation with pus formation, which has become chronic, silicea is of great help. It is equally useful in grandular or bony ulceration. Think of silicea in whitlow, unhealthy skin, smelly feet, mammary abscess, mammary cancer, TB of the skin, the bone or of the abdomen,

Plants yielding oilseeds are economically important in India next only to food crops and play an important role for sustainability of  cropping systems and soil health. Oilseeds scenario in the country underwent a sea change in  last fifteen years. India changed from net importer in  1980s to a net exporter  during  early 1990s. Again, it is back to net importer importing more than 40 % of its annual edible oil needs. Country’s demand for edible oils is  rising to double  the current level of 4% (as against productivity growth of 2% in 1986-2001) in  next 12 years (Hegde 2004). To meet  challenges of oilseeds production, there is  need to adopt multi-pronged strategy which involves enhancing production through area expansion and productivity improvement through improved technologies and value addition . As a progressive step in this direction of self sufficiency, there is  need to identify alternative oilseed trees/plants which can be grown in wastelands. There are more than 300 different kinds of tree species which bear seeds  rich in oil and  introduction of simarouba is an important step in this direction. National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Development (NOVOD) Board under Ministry of Agriculture  identified simarouba as a potential Tree Bearing Oilseed (TBO) for popularization in India and placed it in  first place in their list of importance.

The concept of single cell micro-gel electrophoresis (SCGE)/comet assay is f irst introduced by Ostling and Johanson (1984) as a method to measure DNA single-strand breaks under neutral conditions. Singh et al. (1988) modified this technique by using alkaline conditions (>13 pH) of electrophoresis, which enabled detection of not only frank strands breaks but also alkali labile sites, DNA cross- linking and incomplete excision repair sites. Now-a-days, this technique is extensively used to study the genotoxic effects of various chemicals. The advantages of SCGE technique include: (1) collection of data at the level of individual cell, allowing for more robust types of statistical analysis; (2) need for small number of cells per sample (<10,000); (3) its sensitivity for detecting DNA damage; and (4) that virtually any eukaryotic cell population is amenable to analysis. The idea is to combine DNA gel electrophoresis with fluorescence microscopy to visualize migration of DNA strands from individual agarose-embedded cells. If the negatively charged DNA contained breaks, DNA supercoils are relaxed and broken ends are able to migrate toward the anode during a brief electrophoresis. If the DNA is undamaged, the lack of free ends and large size of the fragments prevented migration. Determination of the relative amount of DNA that migrated provided a simple way to measure the number of DNA breaks in an individual cell.

Genotoxic effects of any xenobiotics in PMNC and splenocytes of Wistar rats can be studied according to the working protocol of Dhawan et al.

Sinusitis or accessory sinus suppuration is bacterial inflammation of the nasal and contiguous sinuses following acute rhinitis especially streptococci. Sometimes the infection travels from the second bicuspid and first two molar teeth whose roots are near to the antral floor. Sinusitis is an important etiological factor in the causation of many diseases of the lower respiratory tract.

Inflammation of the paranasal sinuses often follows the common cold, influenza, and other general infections. Germs that would normally be eliminated from the body may sometimes find their way into these little sinuses or chambers on each side of the nasal passages. Trouble may be due to inadequate drainage resulting from a deviated septum, or perhaps to the presence of polyps. Any chronic infection within the nose may lead to sinuses.

Acute Sinusitis is characterized by moderate degree of fever and local pain. The latter depends on the site affected: if frontal sinus, forehead; antrum, on one cheek: sphenoidal sinus, deep-seated headache. Headache is more marked in the afternoon.

Abstract

“Darjeeling Tea” as a global brand brings attention to the Darjeeling District and creates a global imaginary which obliterates the dark colonial history, existing exploitation of the workers and the natural resources of the region. The global brand name is protected under the certification trademarks which has a geographical indication. Thus only tea from the 87 tea plantations can be called Darjeeling Tea. There is an increasing trend towards Darjeeling Tea going organic and fairtrade. This trend is critiqued with questions of how green and fair can a monoculture plantation get. Within this imaginary, small farmers’ tea offers an alternative paradigm based on equity and diversity. This paper explores the alternative by highlighting the (United Development Organization) journey of a small farmers collective Mineral Spring SanjuktaVikashSanstha.

Indian hot arid zone which is about 12% of total geographical area of the landmass of 0.32 million km² has maximum covering in western Rajasthan i.e. 61% of the total area whereas the other areas in arid region are available in the states of Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka accounting for 20, 5, 4, 7 and 3% of hot arid area whereas the cold arid area of 8.4 million ha lies in the state of Jammu & Kashmir covering the Leh and Ladakh region.

The hot arid area is characterized by frequent droughts of 47% of frequency in the last century of moderate to severe nature. Due to higher occurrence frequency of droughts in this region of state, the livestock assumes great importance as a drought management measure as agriculture is at the mercy of rainfall pattern which is very uncertain in amount as well as distribution coupled with poor soil condition, higher evapotranspiration and higher wind velocity causing the soil erosion.

For arid region of Rajasthanthe general climatic conditions, topographical features and biotic factors do not encourage agricultural operations in the absence of extractive industry the peasantry has to fall upon animal husbandry as their main occupation. Rearing some of the finest breed of cattle, camel, sheep and goats known for their endurance making much use of the meagre feed resources which are grasses ,herbs, shrubs, tree leaves and cultivated feed and fodder crops. Livestock farming has some in built superiority over crop farming as far as growth; stability and resource conservation are concerned. On an average, the region experiences 3 years of drought in every 10 years. The natural forces constituting the soil-climatic complex, which conspire to reduce the crop productivity and cause instability in agricultural production, have much less impact on livestock farming. This is due to differences in the nutritive value of natural vegetation, which mainly sustains livestock.

Snapmelon [Cucumis melo L. var. momordica (Roxb.) Duthie * Fuller] originated  in India. It was intensively cultivated in the 19th century in Northern India (Duthie 1905) where it is commonly called as ‘Phut’ which means to split or crack. Immature fruits are cooked or pickled and the low sugared mature fruits are eaten raw. The mature fruits crack or burst. Fruit cracking is  either longitudinal or random starting in middle of fruit (Fig.1).

Soil
Cashew is grown on a wide variety of soils in India. It comes up well in all types of soils at an altitude up to 700 m. It cannot stand in water logged or saline soils. It can come up in very sandy soils also. Adoption of cashew has been found in wide variety of soils from coastal sands to degraded laterites. The worst soils, not suited to other crops, are normally allotted for cashew. In Sri Lanka and Philippines, it is grown in alluvial soils. Cashew comes up well even in volcanic soils of Indonesia, Fiji and some part of Philippines. Cashew is not suitable in heavy clays, water logged conditions and ill drained soils. It is grown abundantly in loose sandy soils particularly in South India, East Africa and Brazil. In Karnataka and Kerala, it grows well in poor laterite soils. Cashew prefers well-drained aerated sandy loam soils with adequate moisture. Coastal plains and plateau are very good for cashew cultivation.

In India, cashew is mostly grown on laterite and red soils and coastal sands. The tree has an extensive root system, which helps it to tolerate a wide range of moisture levels and soil types, but commercial production is only advisable in well-drained, sandy loam or red soils with slight acidic pH (4.5-6). The cashew tree can flourish in the sand of open beaches, but it grows poorly in heavy clay or limestone.

Though cashew can be grown on a variety of soils, a well-drained 1-1.5 m deep soil having a water table between 2 and 10 m depth and pH of 5.6 to 7.0 is preferred. Laterites, red and coastal soils rich with organic matter are best for cashew growing. Even the marginal soils can be used for cashew cultivation but the waterlogged condition should be avoided as the cashew is very susceptible to it (Farooki and Sreeramu, 1999).

Soil

Soil has a pronounceed effect on the plant growth and productivity in kewda. Well drained sandy-loam soil with adequate supply of moisture is best suited for its vigorous growth and flower production. Thickly distributed profitableKewda plantations with normal flowering are found in the lateritic belts with deposits of silty loam soil and adequate moisture supply. In heavy clay soil with inadequate moisture supply, the plants grow vegetatively with poor flowering. At places close to the Bay of Bengal like Rangiagarh, Kujang, Paradeep of Jagatsinghpur district, where a silt-loam soil deposit is found over the clay zone, the dense plantations of kewda with free flowering ability are noticed. But surprisingly, the female plants are more at few places close to the Paradeep port, which may be due to seed propagation by drifting of ripe fruits from the uplands; while in Ganjam district, the farmers are used to plant the selected male plants in their field resulting in high flower production.

The tentative age of the natural plantations is estimated from the rates of leaf production, stem and branch growth (5-50 cm / year) and development of branching pattern (primary and secondary) in conjuction with the interactions made with the local farmers of kewda (Fig. 9). The plants of different age groups (1 to 5 years) are observed for growth characters and flower production at Tulu of Ganjam and Konark of Puri districts under farmers’ field condition and it is observed that the initiation of flowers started at 5 years of age and the rate of flower production was 1.7 to 2.2 per plant (Table 9).

Soil- Soil is the upper most crust of earth surface which supports plant growth. It is defined as a three phase system in which plants grow. These phases are solid, liquid and gas and are essential. Solid part is frame which provides space for other two. This consists of minerals, clay minerals and organic matter. The soil is also a living system with millions of microbes that breakdown organic matter and builds it again.

Some points are following

Microbes are essential and survive only when soil is well aerated and rich in organic matter and devoid of waterlogged conditions.

Texture of soil depends on the size of solid particles and classified as gravel, coarse and fine sand, silt and clay.

Soils are classified according to relative distribution of these particles and there are 12 textural classes.

Likewise, arrangement of these particles is referred as structure, and both texture and structure lend soil physical properties like water holding capacity, aeration and bulk density.

Generally loamy soils and crumb structure are most preferred for fruit crops.

According to level of organic matter, soils are classified as mineral soil or organic soil and soil having more than 20% organic matter is organic soil like peat and muck.

Dry areas specially arid and semiarid regions are characterized by harsh climatic condition with limited natural resources like fresh water and vegetation. Soil which is most important component for agricultural production is also problematic in this region due to high salt content. Further, these regions face dual water problems: very low rainfall and poor quality of available water. Most of the available groundwater in these areas has high salt content, which further enhance salt content in soil after irrigation with this water. Salinity of soil is one of the most severe abiotic factors limiting agricultural production in arid and semiarid regions of the world. Term ‘salt-affected soil’ refer to soils in which salts interfere with normal plant growth, and is broadly divided into saline, saline- sodic and sodic soil, depending on amounts of salt, type of salts, amount of sodium present and soil alkalinity. Excessive soluble salts in the saline soil limit the ability of plant roots to absorb soil water even under wet soil conditions, while high sodium content in sodic soil reduce the availability of Ca, Mg, other micronutrients and finally deteriorate physical condition of soil. Poor physical structure of soil results in difficult to till, poor seed germination due to soil crusting and restricted plant root growth. Due to the poor physical structure, sodic soils are also susceptible to wind and water erosion compared to saline soils. All these negative impact of salt accumulation on the soil finally affect growth and yield of the crops. As per estimates of ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal, crop production loss to country due to sodicity is around 11.18 million tonnes while due to salinity is around 5.66 million tonnes. Furthermore, the area under this category is rising due to secondary salinization caused by faulty management of irrigation water, seepage loss, impeded drainage, rapid rise of water table causing water-logging. Certainly, these soils and saline water threaten the livelihood security of farming community. The area under cultivation is decreasing due to diversion of agricultural land in to other uses to meet needs of rising population and as such, agriculture has to make best use of poor quality land and water resources to meet the food demand. Therefore, management of salt affected soil become necessary for ameliorating negative impact and enhancing agricultural production in these regions. Each type of salt-affected soil has different characteristics and thus required different strategies for management.

Increasing susceptibility of vegetables to various biotic and abiotic stresses and very high cost of hybrid seeds has warranted the attention of the vegetable growers to improve the nursery raising technology of vegetables. Now-a-days protected nursery raising of vegetables has become a full flagged industry in several developed countries like Israel, Japan, Spain, Netherlands, USA etc. In countries like Israel no vegetable grower is growing his own nursery, but they are getting the required kind of seedlings from an established nursery owner on pre- order basis. Similar system of nursery raising is also prevalent in several other advance countries. In those situations where vegetables are being grown under protected conditions it becomes pre-requisite to raise the required vegetable seedlings only under protected environment to get virus free healthy seedlings.

Raising nursery from seeds provide an easy and convenient way to nourish tender and young seedlings in a well managed, small and compact area for better germination of small and costly seed. In general, vegetables crops are divided into three groups according to their relative ease for transplanting. Beet root, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato and lettuce are efficient in water absorption and rapidly form new roots after transplanting. Vegetables crops that are moderately easy for transplanting are brinjal, onion, sweet pepper, chilli and celery which do not absorb water as efficiently as crops that are easy to transplant, but they form new roots relatively quickly. The vegetable crops which are difficult to transplant are: all cucurbits and sweet corn which require special care during nursery raising and transplanting. Seedlings not only reduce the amount of time of the crop but it also increases the uniformity of the crop and harvesting as compared to direct sowing of the crops. Transplanting of seedlings also eliminates the need for thinning and provides very good opportunities for virus free, vigorous and even off-season seedlings if grown under protected conditions in soil-less media. So it becomes necessary to know the protected structures which can be efficiently used for successful raising of vegetable seedlings, suitable types of containers and growing media, method of seeding in containers in soil-less media, growing conditions and water and fertilizer requirement of seedlings along with hardening and transplanting to the field. Protected nursery raising technology is highly suitable and can be established as a small scale industry in major vegetable growing areas of our country by progressive farmers especially in peri-urban areas. By this way the vegetable growers will get virus-free healthy and off season nursery as per their requirement and it generate extra employment in rural areas.

Soil and growing media provide the physical, chemical, and biological foundation for successful horticultural production. This chapter explains soil properties, soil fertility, soil health, growing media, nutrient availability, and principles of plant nutrition. Emphasis is placed on soil testing, pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter, nutrient balance, and crop-specific fertilizer management. The chapter also introduces soilless media used in nurseries and protected cultivation. Understanding root-zone conditions is essential because horticultural crops are highly sensitive to water, aeration, salinity, and nutrient imbalance. Sustainable approaches such as composting, mulching, biofertilizers, and integrated nutrient management are discussed to maintain productivity while improving soil health and resource-use efficiency.

oilless culture is a method of growing plants without soil. It is an artificial means of providing plants with support and a reservoir for nutrients and water. The simplest and oldest method for soilless culture is water culture or solution culture, where inorganic chemicals are dissolved in a vessel containing water to supply all the nutrients to plants. This method was originally termed hydroponics (water working) by W.F. Gericke in the 1930s. Over the years, hydroponics has been used sporadically throughout the world as a commercial means of growing both food and ornamental plants. Today, it is used widely in research facilities as a technique for studying plant nutrition.

Gravel or sand is sometimes used in soilless systems to provide plant support, and retain some nutrients and water. The retention of nutrients and water can be further improved through the use of sphagnum peat, vermiculite, or bark chips. These are the most commonly used materials, but other material such as rice hulls, bagasse (sugarcane refuse), sedge peat, and sawdust are used sometimes as constituents in soilless mixes.

In Solanaceae family there are 85 genera, which includes both tuberiferous and non-tuberiferous plants. Among the non-tuberiferous, tomato, brinjal and chilli are the important fruit vegetables.

4.1. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

Tomato has originated in Peru and Mexican region of South America. It got its name form the azetc work “Tomatl”. In India tomato is the second largest cultivated vegetable after potato. Though it is produced in almost entire country, the major producer states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Cultivar/Varieties: A large number of varieties/hybrids of tomatoes are under cultivation. The most popular among them are Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikash, ARTH 3, ARTH 4, Avinash 2, BSS 90, CO3, HS 101, HS 102, HS 110. Hisar Anmol, Hisar Arun, Hisar Lalima, Hisar Lalit, Krishna, KS 2, Matri, MTH 6, NA 601, Naveen, Pusa 120, Punjab Chhuhara, Pant Bahar, Pusa Divya, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Hybrid 1, Pusa Hybrid 2, Pusa Hybrid 4, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sheetal, Pusa Uphar, Rajni, Rashmi, Ratna and Rupali.

Uses

Tomato adds richness to any dish it is added. Besides using for culinary purpose tomato is also used as salad and dressings and also as adjuvant in several locally available fresh snacks. It is used for thickening of gravies in many Indian curries. As a processed product tomato sauce and ketchup are on top of favourites. It is not only delicious in taste but also rich in its medicinal value. The pulp and juice are mild aperient, a promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal antiseptic. It is said to be useful in sour mouth, canker of mouth and chronic dyspepsia.

Waste is not actually waste but is the by-product of various activities of human life. The unclean handling of these wastes creates problem for public health departments and local bodies. The classification of waste depends on the agencies that classify these wastes according to the area of interest and method of disposal viz. medical field, agricultural field, local bodies, industries etc.

In the present paper, the emphasis is given to the classification based on agricultural activities which includes a) Agricultural marketing waste b) Meat and fish marketing waste.

Standard solution: Standard solution is defined as a solution whose strength is known. e.g. 1 N solution.

Molar solution: Molar solution can be defined as a solution containing the number of moles of a solute (substance) i.e. molecular weight in gram per litre of the solution. e g. Mol. wt. of NaCl 23+35.5 58.5,

So 58.5 g NaCl per 941.5 ml of water= 1 M NaCI solution. Molarity is generally designated by M.

Molal solution: Number of moles of a substance/solute per litre of solvent makes a molal solution. Mobility is generally designated by m.

ABSTRACT

Immature zygotic embryos were isolated from field grown papaya fruits harvested at 90-105 d post-anthesis. The embryos were placed on half-strength Murashige Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 2, 4-D (2.0 mg l^-1) and cultured under dark for a period of 2 months. The frequency of callus formation was around 66%. After 2 months, calli were transferred onto a half-strength MS basal medium and cultured for 3 months with frequent subculturing (once in 3 wk) on the same medium. The frequency of somatic embryo formation was around 36.6%. The somatic embryos on MS medium supplemented with BAP (0.4 mg l^-1) and NAA (0.02 mg l^-1) germinated and produced shoots. The emerging shoots of 2-3 cm height with 2-3 trilobed leaves were placed onto an MS basal liquid medium with IBA (1.0 mg l^-1) for root induction. The plants developed with shoots and roots were planted in a pot-mixture (sand:soil:FYM) containing VAM.