eChapters

Description of the important foliage trees

Abstract

Medicinal plants growing around us are the biggest gift to mankind from the nature. They grow abundantly and over centuries, humans have learned how to utilise plants for the treatment of illness. The great Himalayan belt is home to many endemic medicinal plant species. These plants are the rich source of traditional medicines and form a basis for livelihood of rural and indigenous populations. The present study is aimed to investigate the medicinal wealth of Bani valley that lies in Kathua district, (J&K) which is a part of Western Himalaya. Due to varying climatic conditions, terrains and forest types, the valley is home to various endangered and endemic medicinal plant species. A total 231 plant species belonging to 69 families ranging from angiosperms, gymnosperms and cryptogams (lycophytes and ferns) were documented by frequent field surveys and reviewed by published literatures and floras. Out of 231 plant species, herb species were 142, shrub species were 43 and tree species were 46. Asteraceae was recorded as dominant family followed by Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae, Acanthaceae and Urticaceae. Ethnobotanical data used for various ailments and diseases were obtained from local tribes.

Abstract

Since pre-historic times plants have tendered their services to mankind in the form of food, shelter and medicine. Due to the advancement of human civilization, various folklore systems of medicines were developed across the globe. Among the various folklore system of medicine, Sowa-Rigpa” is one of the oldest well recognised and widely accepted system of folk-lore medicine in the world. It is one of the commonly used of system of medicine in different parts of Tibet, Bhutan, China, former Soviet Union (some parts), Himalayan ranges, Magnolia and, Nepal. The exact origin of Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine is still not known. In the present scenario due to the awareness among the people about the determental effects of the modern chemical drugs, people preferred to use herbal based system of medicine to treat diseases. So, it is needed to understand the floristic wealth of tradional system of medicine to identify the important plants with potential source of drug candidate molecules. In the present chapter an attempt has been made to study the folklore plants used in Tibetan Mountain based Sowa-Rigpa system of medicine and food. Total 332 plant species presented as the most important in Sowa-Rigpa system of medium.

20.1. Introduction

Food laws and regulations are the legal standards of quality which regulate the manufacture and marketing of food products. The major objectives of enacting the food laws and regulations are:

1. To maintain quality of food produced

2. To prevent exploitation of the consumer by the sellers

3. To safeguard the health of the consumers and

4. To establish a standard of quality for different food products.

2.1 Introduction

Food Pipeline refers to a post harvest system which deals with ensuring the delivery of a crop from the time and place of harvest to the time and place of consumption, with minimum loss, maximum efficiency and returns to all concerned including grower, processors and consumer. The term system represents a dynamic, complex aggregate of locally interconnected functions or operations within a particular sphere of activity. While, the term pipeline refers to the functional succession of various operations but tends to ignore their complex interactions.

2.2 Stages of postharvest system

The food commodities broadly undergo different stages/operations of post harvest systems right from harvest till consumption.

1. Harvesting

2. Threshing (food grains, pulses and oilseeds)

3. Drying (food grains, pulses and oilseeds)

Introduction

A wide range of agricultural pesticides is currently being used in India. In the financial year of 2015, the size of the crop protection market in India was of about $4.5 billion (FICCI, 2016). A large number of these pesticides are also being used in considerable quantity on horticultural crops, including fruit crops. In general, judicious application of a pesticide following Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) does not leave its residues in crop produces above unacceptable limit. But the GAP recommendations are not available for all crop-pesticide combinations. The usage pattern of pesticides also sometimes gets modified at farm level due to sudden climate changes, and under such situations, the indiscriminate use of pesticides to combat disease and insect complex might result in the contamination of pesticides in fruits.

ABSTRACT

The present communication deals with the impact and contribution on livelihood sustainability based on forest resources and sacred places in nine fringe villages of Pangolakha Wild Life Sanctuary (PWLS), located in Sikkim Himalaya. Populations density in villages varies from 23 at Nayabusty and 274 at Padamchen. Populations were categorised under three age groups viz. minor (15-25 yrs), major (26-36 yrs) and elder (over 36 years). Approximate by 27.6% populations had minimal primary education. Agriculture is the main activity in Suvaneydara (86.7%), Agamlok (85.3%) and in Nayabustyy (82.3%). Villagers in Padamchen (12.5%) and in Nathang (12.5%) are either dependent on Government job (38.2%) or seasonal flow of tourist (25%). The educational qualification in these villages is classes 5 to 10 standards. 91.1% of people rely on forest resources. About 70% of the villagers depicts that forest cover of the region is improving. The availability of fodders (70%) and fuel woods (60%) are still in abundance. People depend on tirja (private), khashmal and goucharan areas for grazing and fuel wood collection. Forty nine economical economically by valued plant species belonging to 46 genera and 35 families were documented. Subtropical ecosystems had high number of plant species. Poaceae was the dominant family (17%). Tree life form is abundant (51%). Total 24 species are harvested for edible purpose, 24% are freely sold in the local haats (market) for their livelihood sustenance. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of nine villages with respect to forest resources indicated the village specific use pattern of plant resources. Indigenous inherent knowledge of local plants is decreasing in Lingtam. PWLS and its adjoining villages have important places with religious importance, heritage sites managed by the people. It was observed that exploitation of plant resources, lack of maintenance and fast changing concept of traditional ethics among youths, plant resources were degraded and in regenerating stage.

1. Introduction

Lac and other non-timber forest products (NTFPs) provide vital sustenance, employment, and financial revenue to producers and collectors as well as serving a raw material for a range of businesses. They are also important for ecological balance and long-term growth. Weather and price fluctuations have a significant impact on the production of such natural items. Food, fodder, and medication are all ingested straight from these plants. The Indian subcontinent is a significant centre of animal and plant biodiversity. In tropical climates, a variety of forest products play an important role in social and economic life. Wood and Non-Wood Forest Pro

Biofertilizer is already proven to be beneficial for agricultural and horticultural crops. The most important pre-requisite for the success of biofertilizer application is the presence of high population of viable cells which will show the desired effect on plants. Biotic interactions along with competition from native microflora is a major challenge to an applied strains of biofertilizers. The formulation is an important parameter for biofertilizer production containing efficient microbial strain with suitable carrier material and additives. The microbial strain needs suitable protective environment to increase their efficiency at the target site and also make it user-friendly. Performance of biofertilizers under field condition is the major requirement for inoculants. Inadequate formulations and poor inoculant quality are the major hurdles for the successful use of biofertilizers.

Formulation of biofertilizers has to be consistant during production, distribution, storage and transport to the farmer/end users. The shelf-life of inoculated microbial fertilizer depends on the formulation with suitable carrier material. If local production and distribution of an efficient native biofertilizer formulations are developed, the present problems in the field performance of biofertilizers could be significantly solved. Specific formulations of native strains for use in saline soils, acid soils, drought, high temperature and eroded soils requires specific formulations. Therefore,use of native strains of biofertilizer formulations which are tolerant to the abiotic stress is an important approach. The formulations of biofertilizers are challenging and limited success has been observed in the commercialization of new biofertilizers. Hence, the search for new formulations has been a continuous approach. However, the choice of the formulation depends on the application method, available equipment, farmer’s convenience, plant inherent characteristics and developmental stage, cost, mode of action and colonization pathway of the inoculated strain. Conventionally, solid based formulations are used, which have problems of low viability during storage and application.

3.1 Introduction

Flower and plant part based perfumes are receiving special attention at this modern age of civilization. With pre-eminent senses of smell or taste, a large brain affording a superior intellect, would lead to the use of these abilities to improve the environment, the flavour of food and the smell of the surroundings. In fragrance industry, essential oil is a generic term given to all fragrant extracts such as essential oils, absolutes, resinoids, concretes etc. Since antiquity, flowers and plant parts have been used as flavours for food, for religious rites, for beautification of homes and gardens, as incence and insect repellent, in cosmetics and personal adornment and in medicine. Fragrance compositions are used with the purpose to affect customers through their sense of smell and the job of composing fragrances is left upto an expert known as “Perfumer”.

Despite continuing invention of synthetic fragrant extracts, natural essential oils still remain the most important part of fine fragrance. Essential oils are so aromatic and are the focus of the fragrance industry. The content of a pure essential oil product gives it an unmistakable aromatic and healing quality. Nature has always provided us with food, medicine and fibre for clothing that we need to survive. Sometime a walk in the woods, a day spent swimming in Local River or lake or a beautiful sunset can lift a person’s spirit and give them a new outlook. The aroma of a pure essential oil can do the same.

Flavour and fragrance have now become every day necessities and their demand is constantly increasing across the world. Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their basic materials are the same. For instance, orange blossom from citrus aurantium on solvent extraction produces “orange blossom absolute” but that of steam distilled produces “Neroli oil”.

15.1. Introduction

Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food preservation, which allows preservation of taste, texture, and nutritional quality in foods better than any other method. It is a process of bringing down the temperature of food below its freezing point and the frozen storage generally refers at temperature below -18oC.

15.2. Theory of freezing

The freezing process is a combination of the beneficial effects of low temperatures at which micro-organisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular metabolic reactions are delayed. Freezing is generally referred to as a unit operation in which the temperature of food is reduced below freezing point and a proportion of water undergoes a change in state to form ice-crystals. Immobilisation of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause lowering of water activity of the food. Thus reduction in water activity and use of low temperature coupled with some pre- treatments like blanching is the basis for food preservation by freezing. Fruits such as strawberries, oranges, raspberries, black currants and vegetables like green pea, green beans, sweet corn, spinach, sprouts and potatoes are examples of commercially frozen products.

52.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of fruits.

52.2. Theory

Freezing is a method of preservation in which the food temperature is reduced below freezing point and a proportion of water changes in to ice-crystals. Immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause lowering of water activity in the food. Thus, reduction in water activity and use of low temperature coupled with some pre-treatments is the basis for food preservation by freezing. The method for freezing of fruits depends upon the intended use. The process variables for freezing of different fruits and flow chart are shown in Table 52.1 and Fig 52.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer. The fruits are frozen to an internal temperature of -18oC or lower and kept at 18oC or lower throughout transport and storage.

53.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of vegetables

53.2. Theory

Freezing is often considered the simplest and most natural way of preservation for vegetables. Frozen vegetables and potatoes form a significant proportion of the market in terms of frozen food consumption. The quality of frozen vegetables depends on the quality of fresh products, since freezing does not improve product quality. Pre-process handling, from the time vegetables are picked until ready to eat, is the important factor affecting quality of finished product. The process variables for freezing of different vegetables and flow chart are shown in Table 54.1 and Fig 54.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer.

1. Introduction

Freezing is a method of food preservation that involves lowering the temperature below the freezing point of food generally -18 °C or below. During freezing of food the water present in them changes its state to form ice crystals. Human beings in the colder regions have used freezing as a means of preservation since they learnt hunting and gathering foods. The foundation of the modern frozen industry was laid in mid 1920 when Clarence Frank Birdseye, an American inventor used cold brine solution to chill packaged fish and extended it further for quick freezing of meat poultry fruit and vegetables. 

The cotton aphid :Aphis gossypii: Aphididae

Both nymphs and adults cause the damage by sucking the plant sap from shoot tips, flowers and leaves.  Severe infestation may result in complete drying of affected parts.  Attacked leaves curl up, wither and fall. These are yellowish green or brown coloured aphids.  The total life cycle from first instar nymph to adult occupies an average of 8-10days.  It reproduces parthenogenetically and viviparously.  The female may produce 10-30 young ones in a life span of 10-12 days.  The nymphs transform into adult in 5-8 days after passing through four moults.

Adverse climatic conditions like temperature, humidity, frost etc. affect vegetative growth, flowering, fruiting as well as quality of horticultural crops. Tropical crops are usually more sensitive to low temperature and frost injuries whereas temperate crops are vulnerable to high temperature effects. High temperature beyond tolerable limits may cause sunscald, tip dieback, bud death and heartwood damage. On the other hand, when temperature drops below the freezing point; water molecules ice formation in the intercellular spaces takes place showing freezing injuries on various plant parts. The symptoms like dehydration and necrosis are visible on plant due to increased concentration of sugars within the cell causing reduction in the water content. The extent of damage will depend upon the prevailing low temperature and its duration. Exposure of the plant near freezing temperature for prolonged time causes death of the plant due to formation of ice crystals in intercellular spaces.

Major industries constituting the food processing industry are grains, sugar, edible oils, beverages and dairy products. The key sub-segments of the food processing industry in India are dairy, fruits and vegetables, poultry and meat processing, fisheries, food retail etc. Agro processing is the sunrise sector of the Indian economy in view of its large potential for growth and likely socio economic impact specifically on employment and income generation. India has the advantage of being one of the fastest growing economies in the world and it is the largest producer of several agricultural commodities. The food processing sector ranks first in terms of employment and number of factories in operation and third in terms of output.

In India, out of the total production of fruits and vegetables, nearly 76 per cent is consumed in fresh form, while wastage due to improper post harvest accounts for 20 to 35 per cent. Only around 2 percent of vegetables and 4 percent of fruit production are being processed. 

Fruits have been one of the earliest foods of mankind. Ancient Indian texts like Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, religious books and puranas are replete with mention of various kinds of fruits. The mango is believed to have been grown for more than 4000 years. Mention of apple, the forbidden fruit, in the Holy Bible is well known. The date-palm is recorded as the fruit crop grown by mankind since 7000 BC. The first book in the world on fruit culture is said to have been the one written on litchi in 1056 AD. In the earlier period of human civilization, fruits served both as food and medicine. Fruits, nuts and tubers were the staples for early wanderers and gatherers. The settled agriculture made mankind more dependent on cereals, pulses and oilseeds for staples and fruits, vegetables and nuts became more a medicine than food.

Many evolutionary and anthropological changes occurred in course of time with changing food habits. At every stage of major change, food habits determined the life expectancy. After completing a full cycle or helix, time has returned to focus on fruits and vegetables again as food, from a stand point of health and wellbeing. From being trees of wild and forests in earlier period, fruit crops became confined to palaces and orchards of Kings in medieval period. In modern Era, it came to stay as commercial commodities dictating the terms of trade. Due to its growing commercial importance the governments across the globe focused to expand the area under fruit crops and cross border trade in several fruits and vegetables. Horticulture research started prioritizing the traits in fruits that determine the economics of trade. In line with these developments, Indian government assigned great significance to horticultural crops since 8^th five-year plan period, and the allocation for horticultural research was increased to `110.2 crores from `31.96 crores in the previous plan. During the 10^th five-year plan period in 2005-06, the National Horticulture Mission was started. As the net outcome of these efforts, the area under fruit crops increased from 2.87 million ha in 1991-92 to 6.48 million ha in 2016-17. The production increased from 28.63 million tonnes to 92.85 million tonnes and productivity from 9.96 tonnes/ha to 14.33 tonnes/ha during the same period (Anon, 2017).

Out of the total value of output of agricultural crops, fruits and vegetables contribute the lion’s share of 23%. The major fruit crops producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal and Chattisgarh. The major fruit crops grown are banana, mango, citrus fruits (sweet orange, mandarin, lime & lemons), peach, guava, papaya, pomegranate, sapota, apple, pineapple, ber, litchi, avocado, etc. Several minor crops like jackfruit, aonla, bael, jamun, custard apple, fig, karonda, phalsa, carambola, etc., are also grown. Some exotic fruit crops like dragon fruit, kiwi, durian, Malayan apple, rambutan, etc., are also getting imported either due to its extra ordinary taste or exotic flavor.

Beverages:-The fruit beverages are easily digestible, highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing, nutritionally for superior than many other synthetic drink. There are two types of fruit beverages i.e. unfermented beverages and fermented beverages. Natural juice, RTS (Ready to Serve), nector, cordial, squash, crush syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice powder are the main unfermented beverages. The fermented beverages are wine, champaigne, port, sherry, tokay, muscut, neera, cidar, orange wine, berry wine and fenny are the important.