eChapters

1. Introduction

Raw milk is an emulsion. It is a mixture of milkfat globules, Solid Not Fat (SNF) and water. Over time, milkfat globule separate out from milk serum and comes to the surface of milk as a layer of cream due to the low density of milkfat or due to heating of milk. When milk is heated rapidly and continuously, some of the water in it evaporates from the surface. This exposes proteins and fat molecules, which bind and dry out and forms a skin like film on the surface. 

ABSTRACT

The Cry2A proteins are promising candidates for managing the development of Cry1Ac resistance in insects. The Cry2A class of proteins is different from that of Cry1A, and experiments have shown that insects resistant to Cry1Ac are not cross-resistant to Cry2A proteins. However, the Cry2A proteins are less toxic than Cry1Ac to the polyphagous pest Helicoverpa armigera. Structure-based protein engineering of Cry toxins may pave the way for directed evolution of variants with broad spectrum of insect species specificity, enhanced potency, and stability. In the present study homology modeling of Cry2Ac was done using DeepView software. The template for Cry2Ac protein sequence (accession number X57252) was selected using ExPdb template search. The raw sequence of the Cry2Ac was superimposed over the Cry2Aa PDB template (1I5P). The superimposed model was submitted to the SWISS Model server. After receiving the Cry2Ac model, energy minimization was done using Gromos96. The threading energy and force field energy were calculated. The homology model of Cry2Ac made by us along with the Cry2Ac model from the SWISS-MODEL Repository was used for comparative analysis of receptor binding regions of Cry2Aa. Results showed variation between the two highly homologous Cry2A proteins in their receptor binding regions which may account for differences in spectrum of insecticidal activity.

16.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Asia

• Widely distributed in tropical regions of Asia and Pan tropics

• Most part of India up to 1000m elevation includes Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

16.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Seed, roots.

• Black seed variety contains L - DOPA CL - 34 dihydroxy phenylalanine non-protein amino acid.

• Used as tonic, aphrodisiac and treatment of Parkinson’s disease

• Used in rheumatic ailments.

Description and Distribution
A near relative of Turnip, Cabbage and Mustard. It is one of the oldest condiments, and is a well-known, large-leaved, hardy perennial in many long-established gardens. It is the thick, white, fleshy, tasty root of the Horse- Radish, which is highly prized as an appetizing condiment which goes well with many food items. A native of the marshy districts of Eastern Europe, it is grown in the USA, and to some extent in the gardens, both in the northern India and in the hill stations of the southern India. In the USA, about 7 million kilograms of Horse-Radish are processed annually for consumption as food. Cultivated over 1500 acres in the USA, its varieties are classified into two types, namely, Common and Bohemian. The Common type has, broad, crinkled leaves and produces a root of high quality. The Bohemian type has, narrow, smooth leaves, is diseaseresistant, but, yields poorer quality roots. Horse-Radish plant is highly sterile and hence is propagated asexually by the root. The tap root is tuberous and cylindrical, 30 cm long and about 18mm in diameter, possesses an acrid, pungent taste, and, when scraped or bruised, emits a characteristic pungent odor (Guenther, 1973). The root contains a pungent, acrid and vesicating volatile oil. The pungency is due to the presence of “Sinigrin”(potassium myronate), a sulfur-containing glucoside, which, in the presence of water and under the influence of an enzyme myrosinase, yields allyl mustard oil or allyl isothiocyanate, as by mustard seeds (Willstater and Stoll, 1918, Stoll and Seeback, 1948).
Area, Production and Export
Horse-Radish, being a garden crop, so far, there is no recoded data on any of the aspects of area, production and export from India.

HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The Horticultural crops are majorly classified on the basis of its consumption and uses as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. Moreover, these crops have been further classified into various groups on the basis of their habitat, growth pattern, edapho-climatic requirements and uses. All branches of horticulture classified specifically as hereunder:

A Classification of fruits

1. Based on Climatic adaptability
   1. Tropical fruits: These fruit crops are grown in tropical climatic regions which are geographically located between the parallels of 23° 27' South (Tropic of Capricorn) and 23° 27' North (Tropic of the Cancer) of the equator. They are generally evergreen and very sensitive to cold. Eg. Mango, Pineapple, Banana, Papaya, Citrus, Sapota, Avocado etc.
   2. Sub-tropical fruits: Fruit crops are grown in between temperate and tropical climatic regions. They may be either deciduous or evergreen nature. Eg. Mango, guava, citrus, durian, jackfruit, bread fruit etc.

1.1 Introduction

The word ‘horticulture’ was first used in 1600’s, and is derived from two Latin words, ‘hortus’(garden) and ‘cultûra’(cultivation), and it means ‘the culture (cultivation) of garden plants’. Relf (1992) defined “horticulture as an applied science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, nuts, tubers, aromatic and medicinal plants, plantation crops, mushrooms and ornamental plants which include shrubs, flowering plants and turfs stimulating minds, spirits and emotions of individuals, enriching health and wellness of communities, and linking human beings to nature and its landscaped exteriors for wellness and wellbeing”. Fruits and vegetables are nourishing and protective foods. It has been recognized that fruits are a rich source of antioxidants which protect us from dreadful diseases. Vegetables and fruits contain vitamin E, K, and  carotene in addition to minerals like zinc, copper and manganese. To meet the ever-increasing demand of the country for fruits, vegetables, tubers, spices, flowers, ornamentals etc., we must strive hard to deliver better cultivars in as many aspects as possible to the society so that human beings will be in sound health physically as well as mentally. To achieve this goal plant breeding in general, and horticultural plant breeding in particular will come to our help.

Horticulture is an art and science of growing plants. It is the practice of engaging ailing people in various horticultural activities such as gardening and flower arrangements in order to improve their physical, mental and spiritual health. Research confirms that health benefits escalate manifold when people connect with nature and plants by viewing and/or interacting with them. Major benefits of horticultural therapy includes sensory simulation and mood enhancement, mental relaxation, improvement of memory and concentration and an overall feeling of wellness. Horticulture therapy also helps in cultivating positive emotions and provides a meditative mood. It eases both physical and emotional pains and also improves social skills. It is proven that a simple viewing of a garden benefits a person both physically and mentally.

This practice has been used as therapy for centuries. In 1798, Dr. Benjamin Rush, considered as the “Father of American Psychiatry” documented that gardening has positive effects on mentally ill patients. Following World War, II gardening was used as a form of occupational therapy for war veterans. The concept of using nature to improve human health began to gain credibility in 1970’s. Rachel and Stephen Kaplan (1989) found that natural environments had relaxing and restoration benefits for people. The Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture, a peer-reviewed publication of the American Horticultural Therapy Association, has published authentic research papers since 1986. The American Horticultural Therapy Association (AHTA) serves to promote and advance horticultural therapy as a therapeutic intervention and rehabilitative approach. Degrees and certificate programs in horticultural therapy are offered at several colleges and universities and information is available on AHTA website.

Horticultural therapy is a worldwide practice and recognized as an effective treatment for clients of all ages and abilities. It is being used in several diverse settings including hospitals, rehabilitation centres, youth outreach and recovery programs, nursing homes, senior care facilities, prisons, mental health facilities, schools, botanical gardens etc. The client is engaged in horticultural activities facilitated by some trained therapists to achieve specific and documented goals. AHTA believes that horticultural therapy is an active process that occurs in the context of an established treatment plan where the process itself is considered as the therapeutic activity rather than the end product.

Horticulture therapy is a growing profession in rehabilitation and addiction centers, vocational centers, youth mental health programs, hospitals and nursing homes, and old age homes or senior citizen centers, mental health centers, schools and colleges.

The Horticultural crops show wider adaptation and therefore exact delineation of the agro-climatic areas specific to each crops is not possible, except for the typical temperate and tropical species. However, our country can be broadly divided into seven zones for horticultural crops as indicated below:

1. Temperate Northern Region

Comprising of states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Temperate fruits, cool season vegetables are the important horticultural crops in the zone.

2. North Western Arid Region

Comprising ofthe entire Rajasthan state, Gujarat and parts ofPunjab & Haryana. Arid fruit crops like ber, pomegranate, amla, date palm, wood apple and seed spices like coriander, cumin, fennel occupy major area in this zone.

3. North Eastern Sub-tropical Humid Region

Comprising of states and union territories like Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Fruit crops like banana, pineapple, citrus, jack besides plantation crops like tea and large cardamom are also grown here.

The Indian arid and semi-arid regions are characterized by immature, structure less, coarse textured soils with low water holding capacity and poor nutrient status. The moisture deficit conditions dominate for a long time throughout the year, which acts as the major limiting factor for establishment and growth of woody plant. Due to harsh edapho-climatic conditions, arable crop production is risky in arid and semi arid regions and threatening the agriculture, under such situation, horticulture based cropping system is considered effective strategy for improving productivity, employment oppornitues and nutritional security. Most of the cropping systems operating in the limited irrigated    area of arid ecosystems have very high water requirement and are highly unsustainable, hence location specific models have to be developed involving fruit crops, multipurpose tree species and arable crops in an agri-silvi-horti production system for increasing irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), productivity, profitability and sustainability of the system. An attempt has been made to present the status of available research data on some of horticulture based farming systems for arid and semi arid regions

Fruits and vegetables play an important role in balanced diet. These provide not only energy rich food but also provide vital protective nutrients/elements and vitamins. Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods. Since most of Indians are vegetarians, the incorporation of horticulture produce in daily diet is essential for good health. Realizing the worth of fruits and vegetables in human health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommended the use of 120g fruits and 300g vegetables per capita per day. With the growing awareness and inclination towards vegetarianism worldwide the horticulture crops are gaining tremendous importance.

Functions of fruits and vegetables in human body

Fruits and vegetables provide palatability/taste.

Improves appetite and provides fiber to overcome constipation.

They neutralize the acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids.

They improve the general immunity of human body against diseases, deficiencies etc.

They are the important source of vitamins and minerals for used in several bio-chemical reactions occur in body.

German Prof. Peter Laurenberg conceived first the word horticulture. The term “Horticulture” is known in written form first in seventeenth century in a book entitled “New World of Words” by Phillips.

Etymologically the word “Horticulture” is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ [garden or enclosure] and ‘Cultura’ [cultivation]. So, literally horticulture means ‘garden or enclosure culture’ or ‘cultivation of garden crops within protected enclosures’.

Garden: Garden is a broad term derived from the Latin word Gyrdan meaning “to enclose”.

DIVISIONS AND DEFINITION OF HORTICULTURE

Pomology: (pomum = fruits, logy = science) It is a branch of horticulture which deals with study or cultivation of fruit crops starting from raising of saplings and intercultural to harvesting operations. The ‘pomology’ term is derived from latin word pomum (means fruits) and greek word logy (means science).

India is the seventh largest country in the world with a total geographical area of 328.73 million ha and has second largest population after China. The gross cropped area is 198.36 million hectares of which 70% is under rainfed cultivation. Around 55 to 60 per cent of the total population depends on agriculture and allied activities.

One of the important features of India prevalence is varied agro-climatic conditions; which enables to strengthen the horticulture industry. Many numbers of horticultural crops namely fruits, vegetables, ornamental and flower crops, spices and condiments, plantation crops, aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. are grown in almost all the parts of country. Thus, horticulture sector has become one of the major drivers of growth in agriculture having major share in agriculture GDP.

After independence, the Government of India realized the need of diversification in agriculture during the mid-eighties with an objective to make it more profitable through efficient land use. Due to diverse agro-climatic conditions, rich diversity in genetic resources of horticultural crops, sincere efforts through education and research, implementation of standardized technology by horticulturist in the field has achieved not only the production, productivity and export of horticultural produce but also the food and nutritional security. Such horticulture development in India is proudly said as “Golden Revolution”. Horticulture is also said to be a sunrise industry as it has potential to raise farm income, provide livelihood security and earn foreign exchange through export.

The horticulture industry is now expanding in many commercial sectors such as cultivation, production, post-harvest handling, processing, marketing, etc. Horticulture crops are grown on an area of 10% of India’s gross cropped area, as compared to over 50% of the area under food grains production. 

1. IMPORTANCE

India is bestowed with a varied agro-climate, which is highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamentals, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, arecanut, cashew and cocoa. It has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. India has emerged as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; with largest producer of coconut, arecanut, cashew, ginger, turmeric, black pepper and tea, among plantation crops.

The changing scenario encourages private investment, to go for Hi-tech Horticulture with micro-propagation, protected cultivation, drip irrigation, fertigation and integrated nutrient and pest management, besides making use of latest post harvest measures particularly in the case of perishable commodities. As a result, horticulture crop production has moved from rural confines to commercial ventures and has attracted youth since it has proved to be intellectually satisfying and economically rewarding. It is essential to appreciate the contribution of horticulture, landscaping and gardening in the hospitality industry. Aesthetic use of horticulture freshens up the atmosphere, enhances the look of the property and creates a lasting impression on guests. It also has a beneficial effect on the health.

Many thousands of people today are heavy smokers, not by choice, but because they have found no way of escape. They are caught in the grip of a habit developed during their teen-age years when so many young people think it is 'smart' to smoke.

The strange thing is that most of these people never wanted to smoke in the first place. There was only doing what they thought everyone else was doing at the time. Yet there is another odd thing. Smoking in not a normal habit. A person has to learn to smoke.

Smoking is by and large, an acquired habit. People start smoking because they think it is fashionable to do so or because their friends and companions are able to persuade them to start smoking. Some smokers feel that they look more attractive to the opposite sex when they are smoking. Others hold that a social gathering becomes more intimate if people are smoking. In reality all this is a product of smokers imagination. Because he wants to justify his habit, he invents enough reasons for it.

Food, Water and Air are three essential elements for existence and sustenance of life. Primarily food is manufactured by the plants by trapping the energy of Sun in presence of carbondioxide and water. Foods can be broadly classified into energy foods and protective foods. While energy is required for all bodily functions, protective foods confer a degree of resistance against diseases, corrects some disorder and prevents occurrence of certain conditions that occur due to deficiency of certain elements and phytochemicals. The balanced diets are said to be those which have an appropriate amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. All these three components play certain essential role in the process of metabolism. Deficiency or insufficiency of these major food components may lead to energy deficient disease conditions and are considered responsible for malnutrition world wide. Energy deficiency can threaten the existence of life. Food grains, tubers and roots are major sources of carbohydrates, and proteins. Sufficient intake of carbohydrates, proteins and fats alone does not ensure health. Health and wellbeing are the two important aspects of life, which makes it worth living. For being healthy, besides energy, body requires minerals and vitamins which are present mainly in fruits and vegetables. The role phytochemicals play in cleansing the body and fight against diseases, was understood quite recently. Therefore, for a healthy life we need to consume a balanced diet comprising of appropriate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fruits, vegetables and nuts. While the former three can be consumed based on the energy requirement of an individual, one should consume at least 180 and 300 grams of fruits and vegetables respectively everyday.

Abstract

Ethnobotany as an academic discipline surfaced in the 19^th century. Traditional medicine is used globally and is of rapidly growing economic importance. In developing countries, traditional medicine is often the only accessible and affordable treatment available. The chapter deals with importance of plants in the life of people, value of collecting the plant samples and adding knowledge to plants based on their economic potential and issues related to ethnopharmacology.

Keywords: Ethobotany, Ethnopharmacology, Drug discovery, Research ethics.

Abstract

Ensuring the provision of safe and healthy working conditions to all workers and promoting the availability to them of certain minimum welfare amenities are the constitutional obligations of all employers as well as the Indian state. Enlightened employers tend to provide for these facilities on their own, as part of their performance and retention strategies. Others, however, largely consider these obligations as burden. Some recent researches reveal that the pursuit of numerical flexibility policies is becoming rampant amongst employers in the advanced world; they are doing so to cut costs and become more competitive. This means more use of labour-cost-saving devices and neglect of some basic rights of workers. Of course, intense competition amongst companies puts pressure on them to attempt cost-cutting and ignore these legal provisions. It should be noted however, that the law relating to working conditions is perhaps the most basic of labour laws in any country; therefore, its sanctity has to be maintained with an added responsibility by all concerned and as a societal value.

Improved production technology is an integral part of hybrid seed production technology, which is a very high venture practice. This is because like several factors (climate, availability of parental lines and technical labour etc), success of hybrid seed production also depends on the success of crop management in the hybrid seed production field

Ash gourd (syn:wax gourd, winter melon, white gourd, white pumpkin, ash pumpkin, Chinese preserving melon and hairy melon) is a vegetable belonging to family Cucurbitaceae and genus Benincasa with only one cultivated species, Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. (2n=2x=24). Ash gourd is an important vegetable especially in the Indo-China region, which is also the major producer of ash gourd (Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997), but it is also a potential crop of tropical Africa and America (Sirohiet al., 2005).