eChapters

Galangal is the dried rhizome or root of a plant, Alpinia galanga Linn. Willd. which grows mainly in the Eastern Himalayas and South-Western India. The plant is 1.8-2.1 meters high, and bears perennial rhizomes which are deep, orange-brown in color, aromatic, pungent and bitter. The fruits are about 13 mm long, constricted in the middle, and contains 3-6 seeds. The seeds are slightly pungent, with an aroma similar to that of the rhizome. Cut pieces of the rhizomes of this species are known as “Greater Galangal”. The rhizome of “Lesser Galangal” is smaller and reddish brown in color, and, has a stronger odor ansd taste. According to Guenther (1973) Galangal root is also known under the names of “Smaller Galangal” and “Radix galangal minoris”. The earliest reference to this spice is that of an Arabian geographer Ibn Khurdabah (869-895 AD), who included Galangal in a list of products from a country he refers to as Sila (which was undoubtedly China). Sometimes later, Plutarch made reference to the use of Galangal as a fumigating spice by the early Egyptians. In 1153, it was mentioned by Edrisi as an incoming spice into Ade, which was then the port used by the Egyptians for all Asiatic products. In his travels, Marco Polo mentions that it was produced fairly extensively in Kachanfu and Kinsai (Tonkin). Galangal is one of the spices which reached European markets relatively early, for it is mentioned along with Black pepper in the literature of the Middle Ages, where it received praise in various writings dealing with drugs, medicines etc. The source of the spice which was reaching the European market remained almost unknown until the last century, when in 1867, a plant of unknown botanical origin was discovered in the extreme south of China. The following year, Hance examined both dried and living specimens of the plant and was able to conclude that it was the same as the “Lesser Galangal” known to the pharmacists.

Long Pepper or Pipli is the dried fruit of Piper longum, which is a slender, aromatic climber with perennial woody roots, occurring in the hotter parts of India, from the Central Himalayas to Assam, Khasi, and Mikir hills and Lower Hills of Bengal, and evergreen forests of the Western Ghats from Konkan to Travancore in Kerala State, India; it has also been recorded from Nicobar Islands. The plant has creeping jointed stems; young shoots are downy; leaves are 5-9 cm long, 3.5 mm wide, ovate, cordate, with broad rounded lobes at the base; female spikes are cylindrical, pedunculate, male spikes are larger and slender; female spikes are 1.3-2.5 cm long and 4.5 mm in diameter; fruits are ovoid; yellowish orange, minute, droop and are sunk in fleshy spike. The female spikes are sharper, sessile and blunt at the tips and erect, are red when ripe; flowers are numerous and packed. Indian Long Pepper is mostly derived from the wild plants, the main sources of supply being Assam State in India, followed by West Bengal, Nepal and Uttar Pradesh. Small quantities are also available from evergreen forests of Kerala State, West Bengal and certain parts of Andhra Pradesh. It is reported to be cultivated at lower elevations in the Annamalai hills in Tamil Nadu, India, and in parts of Assam, in particular, the heaviest (in India) rainfall region, Cherrapunji. It is cultivated in Meghalaya also; India produced about 200 tonnes in 1990-91. The Long pepper, as sold in India, appears to be derived from 2 or 3 species, including one which is Indonesian. Indian Long Pepper is a product of either Piper longum or Piper peepuloides, while the Indonesian or Java Long Pepper imported from Malayasia is from Piper retrofractum. The fruits of these species are used for the same purpose, though they do vary in their comparative effectiveness.

Description and Distribution
A near relative of Turnip, Cabbage and Mustard. It is one of the oldest condiments, and is a well-known, large-leaved, hardy perennial in many long-established gardens. It is the thick, white, fleshy, tasty root of the Horse- Radish, which is highly prized as an appetizing condiment which goes well with many food items. A native of the marshy districts of Eastern Europe, it is grown in the USA, and to some extent in the gardens, both in the northern India and in the hill stations of the southern India. In the USA, about 7 million kilograms of Horse-Radish are processed annually for consumption as food. Cultivated over 1500 acres in the USA, its varieties are classified into two types, namely, Common and Bohemian. The Common type has, broad, crinkled leaves and produces a root of high quality. The Bohemian type has, narrow, smooth leaves, is diseaseresistant, but, yields poorer quality roots. Horse-Radish plant is highly sterile and hence is propagated asexually by the root. The tap root is tuberous and cylindrical, 30 cm long and about 18mm in diameter, possesses an acrid, pungent taste, and, when scraped or bruised, emits a characteristic pungent odor (Guenther, 1973). The root contains a pungent, acrid and vesicating volatile oil. The pungency is due to the presence of “Sinigrin”(potassium myronate), a sulfur-containing glucoside, which, in the presence of water and under the influence of an enzyme myrosinase, yields allyl mustard oil or allyl isothiocyanate, as by mustard seeds (Willstater and Stoll, 1918, Stoll and Seeback, 1948).
Area, Production and Export
Horse-Radish, being a garden crop, so far, there is no recoded data on any of the aspects of area, production and export from India.

Description and Distribution
Sweet Flag or Calamus is reported to be common in Kashmir and Kumaon ranges of the Himalayan forests. The rhizomes are collected from the Himalaya forests and brought to Kathgodan, from where they are despatched to Mumbai, Kolkota and Kanuaj. It is a semi-aquatic perennial herb with a creeping and much branched aromatic rhizome. The rhizome is cylindrical or slightly compressed, about 19-25 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long. Externally, it is light brown or pinkish in color, and, white and spongy within. It is thoroughly washed in water, freed from dirt, and rootlets are removed and then carefully dried at a low temperature. It deteriorates with age and is subject to attack by worms. It is this dried rhizome, which constitutes Calamus or Sweet Flag, which is used as a condiment and as a pharmaceutical product . It has a reputation as a healing herb for its use in medicine. It is found wild as a water weed in shallow margins of creeks, lakes, pools and some rivers, throughout India and Sri Lanka, ascending to 1830 meter above mean sea level in the Himalayas. The plant thrives in marshy places and in most situations, like the edges of lakes and banks of streams. It is cultivated in one district , Kotagere, in Karnataka State, India. Curiously enough, the cultivation of Sweet Flag has not been extended to any other part of the State. It is also cultivated in Europe and USA, more for medicinal purposes.
Area, Production And International Trade
No reliable information is available on any of the above aspects in India, except that it is traded both for medicinal and condiment purposes.

Thyme is one of the best known European culinary herbs. The dried leaves and flowering to ps of Thymus vulgaris Linn. are called Thyme and those of Thymus serpyllum wild Thyme, which is found in the Western temperate Himalayas, from Kashmir to Kumaon hills, India, at an altitude of 1,525 meter above mean sea level. Thyme is grown in Europe, Austria and North Asia. It is now cultivated in France, Germany, Spain, Italy and other parts of Europe and, also, in England, North Africa, Canada and the USA. It is a common garden plant which survives for many years under good culture. The dried leaves are curled, are of brownish-green color, usually no longer than 6-7 mm and 2-3mm broad and marketed in whole or in ground form. The flavor is aromatic, warm and pungent. Wild Thyme is a low, hardy perennial, undershrub, 20-40cm high, successfully introduced into the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu, in Southern India, or at higher elevations. It is used both for seasoning and for its volatile oil, ranging from 1.08-2.0% (average 1.0%), and in India, its cultivation on a commercial scale can be tried in the western temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon hills between 1500 and 4000 meters above mean sea level. The plant can be grown for ornamental edging along the paths in gardens, and is also suitable for rockeries. Leaves are oblong-lanceolate, 10 mm x 3 mm, with orange-brown glandular dots; flowers are coriaceous, small, lavender, purplish to almost white in color, attractive to honeybees, in pubescent verticillaters (Plants that have their flowers intermixed with small leaves growing in a kind of whirl are called verticillate plants); nutlets are brown in color.

Description and Distribution
The dried leaves and flowering tops of Artemisia dracunculus Linn. constitute what is known as “Tarragon”, or, “Estragon”, so well - known to connoissuers, the world over, for its extraordinary flavor. Sometimes, it is also called French Tarragon. Its aroma is warm, aromatic, and reminiscent of Anise. It is a perennial herb found in Western Tibet (4265-4880 meter above mean sea level) and in Lahaul. It is distributed in Afghanistan, Western Asia and South and Middle Russia. It is cultivated in Southern Europe, (France, Spain), temperate zones in the USA, as well as, throughout the colder New England area. It grows to a height of about 2 feet (Pruthi, 1997).
Area, Production, Exports:
No information is currently available.
Crop Management:
Soil and Climate
Deel and Deel (1929) found that optimum yield of the herb material and essential oil are obtained in soil with a pH of 6.2 (in such a soil, the oil may contain as much as 66.3% of methyl chavicol, its chief chemical constituent).
Propagation
Through root subdivision/segments
Planting Season
For planting, a cluster of Estragon roots is divided into several segments, these segments are planted in the field in the months of February/March.

Both possess a pronounced thyme-like odor and flavor. And, both are employed in culinary preparations. The oil of the two plants is closely related in chemical composition. The oil can be obtained by steam distillation of the herb. The dried leaves and flowering tops derived from S.hortensis constitute winter Savory of commerce. The best quality of savory comprises of dried leaves only. S.hortensis constitutes summer Savory. Savory is an erect pubescent annual herb, 20-30 cm in height with pinkish branches, fund in Kashmir State of India. Leaves are oblong – linear or lanceolate with deep-pitted glands on both sides. Flowers are small auxiliary cymes. It grows in Southern France, Germany, Spain, and other parts of Europe, also in England, Canada and the USA. The dried leaves are brownish-green in color, up to 10 mm in length. The odor is strong, warm and highly aromatic; the taste is somewhat sharp and camphoraceous. It is marketed both in whole and ground form. Satureia hortensis Linn., the summer Savory or Garden type, is largely cultivated, although it also grows wild, to some extent. An annual, it is less developed than Satureia montana. Its stalks are herbaceous, covered with soft and linear leaves. The branches frequently are reddish in color. Flowers of the Garden Sage are whitish, dotted with red, growing in a bouquet from the summit of the branches. Satureia montana Linn., the winter Savory, as the French call it “Poivre Diane” grows wild on sunny and calcareous and hill-side of Southern France, especially in the Alpes-Maritimes. It is a hardy, shrub-like perennial, attaining a height of 8-14 inches with small, yellowish or slightly purple leaves, growing

Description and Distribution
Sage is the dried leaf of the of the plant Salvia officinalis Linn. which is a member of the mint family. It grows and is also cultivated in Yugoslavia, Italy, Albania, Turkey, Portugal, Spain, Cyprus, England, Canada, and, the USA. It is also grown in several other European countries. It is native of the Mediterranean region. It is a hardy and a variable sub-shrub, and is often cultivated as a spice and for medicinal purposes. Stems are shrubby, white and woolly, 30-cm tall; the leaves are greyish green, aromatic, entire, petiolate, oblong, 7-8 cm long, base narrowed or spear shaped or round. On drying, the leaves turn silvery grey, and they have soft velvety texture. The flowers are blue, purple or white in simple racemes. The cultivation of Sage or “Garden Sage” has been tried for its essential oil in Jammu (Jammu and Kashmir State of India), which is currently being imported for use in perfumery and soap industries. The plants are reported to have done quite well. It should be propagated in India to save foreign exchange. The cultivation of Sage in the Dalmatian region of Yugoslavia, is considered by the trade to be the best in quality, and the product derived from the cultivated plants in this region is rated the next in preference. The odor is strong, fragrant and aromatic, and the taste is aromatic, warm, somewhat astringent and a little bitter. Other product such as Spanish Sage and Greek sage derived from the other species of Salvia are used either as a substitute or adulterant of the genuine product.
Area, Production and Trade
No reliable published information is available on both area and production of Sage in India or in the world, at large. However, the available information on the international trade of Sage is summarized as follows:

Description and Distribution
Star Anise is the dried, star-shaped fruit derived from Illicium verum which is an evergreen tree attaining a height of 8-15 meter and a diameter of 25 cm. Leaves are entire, 10 -15 cm long, and 2.5-5.0 cm broad, elliptic to oblanceolate; flowers are solitary, white to red colored, fruits are star-shaped, reddish brown in color, consisting of 6-8 capsules (follicles), arranged in a whorl, radiating from the top of a slender short central stem; each follicle is 12-17 mm long, boat-shaped, hard and wrinkled, containing a seed; seeds are brown, compressed-ovoid, smooth, shiny and brittle. The carpels have a pleasant anise-like odor and an aromatic, refreshing, sweet, anise-like taste; the seeds have the same taste, but, to much lesser extent. It is available, whole, and is not usually ground. The plant is indigenous to tropical and sub tropical East Asia. It is extensively cultivated in a limited area with particular ecological factor, in Kwangsi in south-east China, mainland Tonkin in Indo-China, and is mostly imported from China and Indo-China. No import statistics are, however, available for Star Anise. It is now produced to some extent in Arunachal Pradesh in North- East India.
Area and Production
Star Anise is a recent introduction to India, from China, which is the major producer, supplier and exporter of the crop. No organized commercial-scale cultivation has yet been started in the country, but, it is reported to be gradually picking up. According to the latest report by the Deputy Director of The Spices Board, located in Guwahati, in North-East India, about 12.5 tonnes of Star

Poppy seed (Papaver somniferum Linn.) is just what one might think – the mature seed of a beautiful flower, known and used for at least 5000 years. Native of the Mediterranean region, as are so many of spice seeds and herbs, Poppies were taken to India and the East by Islamic missionaries, more than a thousand years ago. Poppy seed is so tiny that one pod may contain up to 30000 seeds and it takes some 9,000,000 seeds to weigh one pound! Each seed has a tiny droplet of nut-sweet oil which explains its flavor appeal. Although poppy seed comes from the same plant which produces opium, the seed cannot form until after the plant has matured to the point where it has lost all of its opium potential. Therefore, there is absolutely no narcotic content in poppy seed. Poppy seed is grown in the Netherlands, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, the Balkan countries, Turkey, Argentina, and, to some extent, India. Poppy is cultivated either for the manufacture of opium or for its seeds. In India,variety album (Papaver somniferum Linn. var. album) of Poppy with white seeds has been cultivated for many years for the production of seeds under license in Dehra Doon and Tehri Garhwal districts of former Uttar Prdesh (now Uttarakhand), in India. It is also grown in Jalandhar, Patiala, Kapurthala, and, Hoshiarpur of Punjab State, in India, and, also in some districts of Madhya Pradesh, in India. The continuation of cultivation of Poppy for Poppy heads and Poppy seeds was reviewed by the All India Narcotics Conference in 1956, and, on its recommendation, the State Government of Punjab banned the cultivation of Poppy for Poppy heads for the manufacture of opium for a maximum period of 4 years, by which time, it was expected that necessary developmental measures would be taken to enable the cultivation of alternative crops in lieu of opium Poppy. In India, best seeds are obtained when the capsules have not been incised for extraction of opium. The crop is

Description and Distribution
The genus Anethum comprises 3 species, 2 of which are recognized for commercial use, and, yield Dill oil used in medicine.These 2 species are:
1. Anethum graveolens (European Dill)
2. Anethum sowa (Indian Dill)
European Dill is indigenous to Europe and is cultivated in England, Germany, Romania, Turkey ,USA and former Soviet Union. Until recently, it was not grown in India. However, efforts have been made to acclimatize it in Jammu (Kashmir, India) according to the Regional Research Laboratory (RRL, Jammu) and the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India, Bhubaneshwar (Odisha State) and its exports also have started since 1988-89. The trends in exports are given in the following table (Table 24)
Export Trends Overview of Top 10 Exporting Countries in 2023
In 2023, India was the top exporting country of Dill, followed by Turkiye, South Africa, China, United States, Spain, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Netherlands, United Arab Emirates. This ranking is based on available export data and may not include countries with missing records.

Description and Distribution
Under the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) of the Government of India (amended upto 31 March 1996) both Caraway (Carum carvi Linn.) and Black caraway (Carum bulbocastanum W.Koch) have been described in Hindi (Indian language), as “Siah zira” or “Kala zir””. These two species have similar cultural requirements and are thus covered under one head
Caraway
About 2000 years ago, Roman soldiers dispersed Caraway seed from it’s home in Asia Minor to most of known countries of the world. North Europeans and central Europeans, especially the British and Germans, respectively, have been using it since centuries. In India, also, it is being used since long. Caraway or Caraway seed of commerce is the fruit of a biennial herb. It is a native of North and Central Europe, and is extensively cultivated in Holland, Poland, Russia, Bulgaria, Denmark, Syria, Morocco and to a small extent in England. It has been introduced into the USA, where it is grown as a garden crop. It (Black Caraway or Kala zira) grows wild in India in the north Himalayan regions. It is also cultivated in the Indian plains. It is also cultivated as a cold season crop in the hills of Kashmir and Kumaon at an altitude of 2740 – 3660 meter above mean sea level, as a summer crop. The Caraway plant usually has a fleshy root and a slender branched stem, that attains a height of 0.5-0.6 meter. The compound pinnate leaves are divided into very narrow segments, the small white flowers are borne in fleet, compound umbels; the fruit, when ripe, splits into narrow, elongated carpels. A fruit is 4-6.5mm long and curved, pointed at the ends, and with 5 longitudinal ridges

Description and Distribution
Shallot belongs to the onion and garlic family and is similar in properties to those of garlic. It is a native of Palestine and is cultivated in the USA, some European countries and in Indian gardens for its bulbs and green leaves. Clusters of greenish-white or red cloves occur at the base of its hollow cylindrical leaves. A variety of Shallot, smaller and with larger number of cloves, is exported to Sri Lanka and Malaysia from Chennai, in Tamil Nadu, India.
Economic Importance
Shallot is gradually gaining importance, as is seen from the export of the same from India during 1994-95. There is much scope for its export development provided its cultivation is stepped up gradually. The encouraging export performance during 1994-95 can be seen from the following table (Table 19).

How many of us really know the value of Tulasi? All that we think is that it is a sacred plant and used only for worship in the Hindu temples and at home. Almost all devout Indians cannot think beyond this. But, Tulasi is an exceptionally valuable plant inasmuch as human nutrition is concerned, when it comes to its seeds. Let us examine the details below. It is a cost-effective substitute for eggs in cake baking, breads and biscuits, just a spoonful of Tulasi seeds is enough for a fluffy cake batter. Tulasi seeds are called Sabja in northern India and are used in , put in tea, to treat sore throat and running nose. Tulasi herb comes under the genus Ocimum. Its botanical name is Ocimum sanctum belongs to the family Labiatae. The word “sanctum” means sacred. The genus Ocimum has over 150 species spread across the world. In Tulasi we have both Rama Tulasi and Krishna Tulasi, which are sacred for use in temples and homes. Ocimum basilicum (also from the genus Ocimum like Tulasi) as it isa prolific seed producer. the seeds have become very popular among health conscious people. The small black seeds (see picture enclosed) become mucilaginous (gain a gelatinous consistency) when soaked in water and consumed, are said to help reduce body weight, help patients suffering from constipation and acidity, and also manage diabetes. Rich in in dietary fiber such as the polysaccharides glucomannan and xylan which make one feel satiated after a long time. An investigation published in the science journal Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre of May 2021 issue establishes that the fiber accounts for 98.50% of this mucilage. The hydrated seeds do not have a strong flavor or taste, they can be easily added to smoothies (sweet milk/fruit based drinks), fruit juices and milkshakes. They have been used as a replacement for fats in sponge cakes by researchers of the department of Food and Nutrition, Korea University in Seol. In a 2017 investigation reported in the Italian Journal of Food Science, the researchers report that 1 gram of seeds can replace 15 grams of butter.

Saffron, the legendary crop of Kashmir, India, is an important food adjunct, that is, food flavorant and food colorant, and, is also reputed to possess several medicinal properties. The recorded accounts of saffron cultivation in Kashmir dates back to AD 550, nearly four centuries earlier than its recorded cultivation in Spain by the Arabs around AD 961. The saffron fields, from mid-October to early November, when saffron plants are in full bloom, on a moonlit night, present a wonderful sight and a good source of fascination to many tourists. But, surprisingly, it’s cultivation in Jammu and Kashmir in India does not seem to be based on scientific research and the growers have some superstitions, notions and methods of their own. Therefore, saffron-growing areas are those very localities where they have been since ancient times (550 AD), and is also their out-dated methods of curing, drying and packing, which can be improved considerably. Over 100 species of saffron genus Crocus are distributed worldwide, but, only Crocus sativus has received some attention and is cultivated in several countries. Saffron consists of dried tri-lobed stigmas of Crocus sativus, which is a bulbous perennial with globular corms. The plant is only 15-25cm tall, native of Southern Europe and cultivated in the Mediterranean countries, in particular, Spain, Austria, France, Greece, besides England, Turkey, India (in Jammu and Kashmir State, an Indian Union territory), and The People’s Republic of Iran. It is also grown in the Orient. True Saffron must not be confused with either meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale Linn; Family: Liliaceae) or Safflower or Bastard Saffron (Carthamus tinctorium; Family: Compositae), which are

1. Introduction
Organic polymers are large, chain-like molecules made up of repeating structural units (monomers) that are primarily carbon-based. These polymers are found both in nature and can be synthesized in labs, and they form the basis of many materials we use daily. Here are some main types of organic polymers (Harris, F. W., 1981).
2. Natural Organic Polymers
These are polymers found in nature. Examples include:
• Proteins: Polymers made up of amino acid monomers, serving as the building blocks for tissues and enzymes in organisms.
• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, which are composed of nucleotide monomers, store genetic information in cells.
• Polysaccharides: Carbohydrate polymers like cellulose (found in plant cell walls), starch (energy storage in plants), and glycogen (energy storage in animals).
• Natural Rubber: Derived from latex in plants, primarily from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).
3. Synthetic Organic Polymers
These are human-made polymers produced through chemical synthesis.
Common examples include:
• Polyethylene: A plastic used in bags and containers, made from ethylene monomers.
• Polystyrene: Used in packaging, insulation, and disposable cutlery, made from styrene monomers.
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): A durable polymer used in pipes, cables, and construction, made from vinyl chloride monomers.
• Nylon and Polyester: Common synthetic fi bers used in textiles.

Introduction 
Polymers are mostly distinguished from metals by their property of inability to conduct electricity. Because of the insulating properties, polymers find advantages for many applications of plastics. However with the discovery of poly sulphur nitride [(SN)x], which acts as super-conductor at low temperature the evolution of conducting polymers began in 1975. After two years the linear conjugated organic polymer polyacetylene treated with gaseous bromine or Iodine found to have metallic properties. Some examples of conducting polymers are polyaniline, polypyrrole and polythiophene etc. Conducting polymers are organic polymer, possesses the magnetic, electronic, electrical properties, mechanical properties, and processibility etc. These properties are most commonly related to the conventional polymer. The transformation of polymer from insulator to conductor is called doping. For example: the effect of conductivity due to the absorption of I2 into polyacetylene is analogous to the effect of doping of arsenic, boron, and phosphorus into silicon to make semiconductor. Doping and undoping can be achieved in conducting polymers by an alternate route of electrochemical oxidation and reduction. Doping includes either the removal of electrons from or addition of electron to the conjugated backbone of conducting polymers. Doping is therefore of two types: Oxidative doping (p-type): In this case, the polymer backbone carries a positive charge due to removal of an electron by ordinary oxidation. Examples of p-doped conductive polymers are polyacetylene, polyaniline, polypyrroles etc. The p-doping causes oxidation of the polymer backbone to form cations. When these cations move along the polymer backbone in an electrical field, the polymer is electrically conductive. Reductive doping (n-type): the polymer backbone acquires negative charge by receiving electrons. Ex: Polyacetylene can be n-doped by alkali metals but these are less explored because they are very much sensitive towards atmospheric air than specific undoped type polymer. According to the principle of electroneutrality, doped conducting polymer needs counter ion to balance the opposite charges in the polymer backbone. These counterions are called dopant. Some common examples of dopants are usually small anions e.g. Cl-, I-, and SO4 2-. However poly-electrolyte like p-toluene sulphonic acid can act as the dopant. The process by which the doped polymer loses its charges and becomes an insulator is called undoping. For a doped conducting polymer with isolated small anions as dopants, undoping is accompanied by the loss of the dopant. Undoping causes the conductive polymer to lose its electrical conductivity and useful optical properties.

1. Introduction 
Among the innumerable gifts of nature, plants, animals and minerals have been the basis of treatment of human diseases. Generally it is either of prebiotic origin or originating from microbes, plants or animal sources. More likely they are the natural expression of the increase in complexity of organisms. Beside animals, plants are one of the most important sources of natural products. From the very beginning of their existence, man has acquainted himself with plants and used them in a variety of ways throughout the ages. In search of food and to cope successfully with human sufferings, ancient man began to distinguish those plants suitable for nutritional purposes from others with definitive therapeutic action. Some plants are widely used as food while others showed beneficial effects against various human sufferings such as injuries and diseases. This relationship has grown between plants and man, and many plants have come to be used as drugs. The use of plant as a drug can be divided broadly into five periods. The early period covers the Indian, Chinese, Sumerian, Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations followed by the Greco-Roman, Arabian, Medieval and modern periods (Buchnman, 1980). Among ancient civilisations, India has been known to be rich repository of medicinal plants as the forest in India is the principal repository of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants, which are largely collected as raw materials for manufacture of drugs and perfumery products. About 8,000 herbal remedies have been codified in Ayurveda. The Rigveda (5000 BC) has recorded 67 medicinal plants (Chopra et al., 1956), Yajurveda 81 species and Atharvaveda (4500-2500 BC) 290 species. Charak Samhita (700 BC) and Sushrut Samhita (200 BC) had described properties and uses of 1100 and 1270 species, respectively (Kirtikar & Basu, 1918; Baquar, 1989) in compounding of drugs and these are still used in the classical formulations, in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. Before the availability of synthetic drugs, medicinal plants were used as the most primary source of medicine and continue to provide the mankind with new remedies for many diseases. These were used in crude forms like expressed juice, powder, decoction or infusion. As the plant have specialized biochemical capabilities they are able to synthesize and accumulate a vast array of primary and secondary chemical constituents or phytochemicals (Ghazanfar, 1994). Phytochemicals are responsible for metabolic activities and used for defense purpose. They are produced by specific biochemical pathways, which occur inside the plant cells. Due to their physical characteristic and chemical properties these chemical constituents are highly beneficial to the mankind and most importantly in primary health care. The first chemical substance isolated from plants was benzoic acid (Figure 1) discovered in 1560. The potent pain-killer, morphine (Figure 1) was separated from the dried latex of Papaver somniferum L. (opium) by F. W Serturner (1783-1814). The bioactive molecule, ephedrine (Figure 1) is one of the most potent plant based medicine and was isolated from Ephedra sinica (Ma huang). It was used in the form of various salts to combat bronchial asthma (Tang & Eisenbrand, 1992). Reserpine (Figure 1) an indole alkaloid, obtained from the roots of Indian plant, Rauwolfia serpentina, was used to treat hypertension. Taxol (Figure 1) is a diterpenoid first isolated from the stem bark of pacific Yew, Taxus brevifolia and used against ovarian for the treatment of ovarian cancer.

Introduction
1.1. Definition and Significance of Natural Products
Natural products are chemical compounds or substances derived from living organisms in nature. These diverse sources, including plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, produce a wide range of chemical structures and functions. The significance of natural products lies in their diverse biological activities and potential applications in therapeutics, agriculture, and various industries. Natural products have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and continue to serve as the foundation for many modern pharmaceuticals, providing templates for the development of synthetic analogues and novel drugs. Their complexity and unique structural features often translate into high biological activity, making them valuable in the discovery of new therapeutic agents. Furthermore, natural products are generally perceived as safer and more environmentally friendly compared to synthetic chemicals, contributing to their appeal in numerous applications.
1.2. Historical Perspective on the Use of Natural Products
The use of natural substances has a long history, with evidence of their application in ancient civilizations such as Egypt, China, India, and Greece. Traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Indigenous practices, have utilized plants, animals, and minerals to treat various ailments. These early practices laid the foundation for the systematic investigation of natural products and their medicinal potential. One of the earliest documented uses of natural products in medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian text from around 1550 BCE (Packard, 1931). Similarly, ancient Indian texts, such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, describe the use of plant-based medicines in Ayurvedic tradition. The scientific investigation of natural products gained momentum in the 19th century, with the isolation of pure compounds, including morphine, quinine, and penicillin.
1.3. Current Trends and Applications
Natural products are invaluable in various industries, serving as a rich source of bioactive compounds for drug development, sustainable agriculture, and functional food products. Many modern medicines, such as the anticancer drug paclitaxel and the antimalarial artemisinin, are derived from natural sources. These naturally-derived compounds often possess unique structures and mechanisms of action that are difficult to replicate synthetically.

Introduction 
Before 1800, it was believed that organic compounds could only be synthesized by living organisms, not possible in the laboratory. Friedrich Wohler successfully synthesized the first organic compound urea in the laboratory. Recently, synthetic organic chemistry has been a well-established science to construct derivative or new compounds, which have been utilized in the fields of medicine, food, clothing, nutrition, polymers, plastic, highly durable materials, and high energy fuels, that are beneficial to humans, and society. To achieve faster organic transformations, many advancements have been made, as a result, catalysts have been taken into account, which provides an alternate faster path for the reaction by lowering the activation energy. The catalysts play a very crucial role in achieving organic transformations more efficiently, affordably, and with higher yields in less time. Additionally, the catalyst which is environment-friendly and easily recoverable after completion of the process, would be beneficial in both economic and ecological ways (Trost, 1991). The utilization of nanoparticles as catalysts in organic transformations is more advantageous over conventional catalysts because of lower catalyst loadings, and high performance of the reaction in heterogenous phase. The large surface area of nanoparticles is responsible for high reactivity towards organic transformations. Till now, many nano-dimension metals like gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), and palladium (Pd) efficiently utilized to catalyze organic transformations (Muskan et al., 2022). The ever-growing demand for productive and sustainable catalytic systems has driven the utilization of transition metal nanoparticles as catalysts in organic conversions (Pathak et al., 2024). Among these, copper-based nanoparticles have shown great potential as catalysts due to their large surface area and variable oxidation states, which enable them to function as both oxidizing and reducing agents, effectively replacing traditional palladium catalysts (Pathak et al., 2024). Copper-based nanoparticles having specific physicochemical properties, varying in size, porosity, surface/volume ratio, and shape can also be synthesized through different physical, chemical, and biogenic methodologies. Most physical and chemical methods are considered toxic, have huge energy demands, and have high-temperature demands. In contrast, biogenic methods are simple and non-toxic. The biogenic procedure can be done by using microbes, fungi, algae, plants, extracts, etc. This chapter provides insights into various aspects of the biogenic synthesis of copper-based nanoparticles using plants and multiple catalytic applications in recent organic transformations.