eChapters

Introduction

Insect pests cause enormous loss to horticultural crops through direct and indirect invasion on various plant parts. It is estimated from the available information in the literature that there are about 1000 insect pests species on about 100 major and minor horticultural crops in India (Sharma et al., 2011).  The yield and quality of produce are central system point to the sustainable horticultural production. If not properly managed, pests can dramatically reduce crop yield, quality and subsequent returns. We invest a lot of time, money and natural resources into growing horticultural crops. Good pest management could protect this investment from avoidable losses.

In the field of agriculture/horticulture, various irrigation systems are being employed to fulfil the water requirement for better growth and development of the tree. Since, cashew is hardy plant which can sustain in rainfed conditions of warm and humid region; it has very good potential to produced higher nut yield. Of the various irrigation methods, drip irrigation system is best method in the areas where natural resources of water is limiting factor. It is well known fact that this system has many advantages.

During the first year after planting, protective irrigation is recommended at 15 days interval during winter and at 8 days interval during summer season. At each irrigation, 25 litres of water to be given per graft. The studies on mulching and irrigation were under taken with a view to determine fruit retention. It was observed that black polythene mulch with irrigation @ 60 liter of water per tree at 15 days interval showed beneficial effect on increasing fruit retention (66.15%) over control. Cashew is grown under rainfed conditions. However, supplementary irrigation during summer months, especially during January-March at fortnightly intervals @ 200 litres/plant proved to double the yield. This is evident from the research results obtained at NRC-Cashew, Puttur (Karnataka).

Water is one of the most critical resources in horticultural production, directly influencing plant growth, flowering, fruit development, and quality. This chapter introduces principles of irrigation scheduling, water requirements, soil–water relationships, and efficient water application. Surface, sprinkler, drip, micro-irrigation, fertigation, and other modern systems are discussed in relation to crop type and environmental conditions. The chapter emphasizes irrigation efficiency, root-zone moisture management, water quality, salinity, drainage, and conservation. Proper irrigation scheduling reduces water losses and prevents both drought stress and excessive wetness. Modern technologies such as sensors, automated irrigation, and precision fertigation are also considered important tools for sustainable horticultural water management.

Water is one of the most vital components for the successful growth and development of crops. It influences most of the plant metabolic activities, namely photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation utilization of mineral nutrients, etc. Its stress or in excess affects the growth and development of a plant directly and consequently its yield and quality.

Role of water: Water plays an important role in plant growth and development in many ways.

• It is the chief constituent of protoplasm.
• It provides aqueous medium for various biochemical (metabolic) reactions.
• It serves as a temperature stabilizer and helps in maintaining a stable metabolic rate.
• It is an essential input for photosynthesis.
• It helps to maintain turgidity of cells and plant organs.
• It is an excellent solvent for various organic materials of cells.

Water is an extremely essential component in plant growth and development. It is of utmost importance for photosynthesis, cell division, cell growth / elongation, respiration, nutrient uptake, mineral utilization and much other metabolic process, which directly affect the quantity and quality of the produce. Hence quantity and quality of water play a vital role in performance of a crop. A well distributed water supply, throughout the growth of plant is essential. Rainfall is the major source of water for the crops. Rainfall recharges the surface water resources such as rivers, streams and ponds and also the ground water resources like wells.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Persia and neighbouring tracts of Western and Southern Asia

• In India, North Guj arat, Raj asthan, Haryana and Bihar are the maj or states.

• Husk and peel - exported to USA, Germany, UK and France

12.2. Economic importance

• Psyllium from Greek meaning flea, in reference to colour, size and shape.

• Economic part - Seed coat, husk used in indigenous medicine. Seeds contain glucoside and tannin.

• Works as an anti-diarrhoea drug.

• Seed - Pentose, a sugar is isolated.

Scientific name: Plantago ovata Forsk.
Family: Plantaginaceae
Isabgol, or Psyllium husk or Blond psyllium, belongs to the family Plantaginaceae. This medicinal herb has been used for centuries in India, particularly for its seed's therapeutic properties. The name "Isabgol" originates from Persian, with "Isab" meaning horse and "Gol" meaning ear, describing the seed's distinctive shape. Isabgol is cultivated globally and is valued for its medicinal and industrial applications. The seed's medicinal properties make it an effective remedy for constipation and digestive issues. Additionally, Isabgol is used in the food industry to produce various products, such as candies, biscuits, and ice cream.
Origin and distribution
Isabgol (Plantago ovata) is native to the Mediterranean region, West Asia, and parts of Pakistan, including Sindh and Sutleg. Its distribution also extends to the Canary Islands, Southern Spain, the Middle East, North Africa, and North- Western Asia.
Botany
It is 10-15 cm tall short-stemmed annual herb. Flowers in terminal spikes; fruit is a capsule. Theflowers are white in colour and minute. It is highly selfpollinated. The capsule is ovate, 8 mmlong, releasing the smooth, dull, ovate seeds. The seeds are covered with a translucent membrane, known as the husk. The husked seeds are dark red and hard.

The cotton aphid: Aphis gossypii: Aphididae

Symptoms of Damage

Both nymphs and adults cause the damage by sucking the plant sap from shoot tips, pods and leaves. Severe infestation may result in complete drying of affected parts. Attacked leaves curl up, wither and fall. These are yellowish green or brown coloured aphids. The total life cycle from first instar nymph to adult occupies an average of 8-10days. It reproduces parthenogenetically and viviparously. The female may produce 10-30 young ones in a life span of 10-12 days. The nymphs transform into adult in 5-8 days after passing through four moults. 

Introduction

Solanum trilobatum L., an important medicinal plant, belonging to Solanaceae is widely distributed in South Asia and has been used in Indian traditional medicinal systems of Siddha and Ayurveda. The members of Solanaceae accumulate steroidal alkaloids based on a C₂₇ cholestane skeleton, e.g. solasodine and tomatidine. Recently, mixtures of solasodine glycosides have been successfully used for the treatment of certain human skin carcinomas (Cham, 1994). Solasodine glycosides have antineoplastic activity in cell culture, animals and in humans (Cham and Daunter1990). It has been demonstrated that specific endogenous lectins which are present on the plasma membranes of susceptible cells recognize and bind the sugar moiety of the solasodine glycosides and the glycosides are subsequently internalized and cause cell death (Cham and Daunter1990). Hence the present study was undertaken to isolate the solasodine from S. trilobatum.

Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Alkaloids showed quite diverse medicinal properties (Rates, 2001). Many of them possess local anesthetic properties, but their practical use is limited for clinical purposes (Hesse, 2002). Morphine is one of the most known alkaloids isolated from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), which had been used and still is for medical purposes. This alkaloid is a powerful narcotic which is used for the relief of pain, but its usefulness is limited because of its addictive properties.

Anthocyanins are members of the flavonoid group of phytochemicals, a group predominant in teas, honey, wines, fruits, vegetables, nuts, olive oil, cocoa and cereals. The primary players in this group include the anthocyanins (eg, cyanidin, pelargonidin, petunidin), flavonols (quercetin, kaempferol), flavones (luteolin, apigenin), flavanones (myricetin, naringin, hesperetin, naringenin), flavan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin), and although sometimes classified separately, the isoflavones (genistein, daidzein) (Skibola and Smith, 2000).

ABSTRACT

A plant grows in a highly competitive environment. It is continually being threatened by other plants encroaching upon the space from which it draws its sustenance, by microorganisms, by insects, avian, reptilian or mammalian herbivores. In order to survive, each plant must draw upon a complex of defenses, which may be physical, such as Spines or Leathery Leaves or Chemical. These defenses are passive, coming into action only when the plant is attacked which repel insects or the herbivores that attempt to feed on them. Plants protect themselves from insect attack by providing a multitude of repellent chemicals including toxic and bitter alkaloids and tannins. Non-specialist insects and other animals that attempt to feed on the plant may be repelled, injured through severe gastrointestinal malfunction or even killed. The cabbage, spinach, mustard etc. are well known for their mustard pungent flavor that deters most animals from consuming it. Even most medicinal plants like Cynanchum collialatum of the family Asclepediaceae have tannins or alkaloids like “cardenolides” that repel most animals and insects. All these plants have a basic enzyme “Myrosinase” which react with these specific tannins to produce the toxic metabolite, which repels insects and animals. But caterpillars of few insects are known to tolerate these toxic alkaloids (ex: caterpillar of Striped Tiger Butterfly-Danaus genutia) and in turn sequester the toxic alkaloids into their tissues making themselves non-palatable to their enemies. We hypothesize the analysis of possible roles of toxic alkaloids isolated from these butterflies as bio-insecticides

ABSTRACT

Amajor goal of plant biotechnology is to develop effective and lasting means to reduce crop losses due to stress caused by biological organisms. In Indian context, fungal diseases are rated as the most important factor contributing to yield losses. Although, conventional programmes towards development of disease resistant cultivars have been successful , they suf fer from limitations of human health consequences, potential degradation of environment etc. In this scenario, introduction of specific genes encoding for disease resistance through genetic engineering seems to be a viable alternative. Among the various genes that are induced in response to plant defense, chitinases are the most widely studied and used for development of transgenic crops. Keeping this in view, attempt was made to isolate chitinase genes from four fungal species viz., Trichoderma harzianum, Metarhizum anisopliae, Nomuraea rileyi and Alternaria solani by designing primers based on sequence information available in the database. RT-PCR was done using the RNA isolated from the fungal species using the designed primers. Amplified products were eluted, cloned into pTZ57R vector and sequenced. Characterization of sequenced cDNA was done using the BLAST (x) programme of NCBI site. The amplified product (261 bp) from T. harzianum showed 90 per cent homology to endochitinases from T. asperellum and T. viridae. Using this cDNA, full-length chitinase gene of 1556 bp from T. harzianum could be accomplished through RACE (Rapid amplification of cDNA Ends). In M. anisopliae the amplified product of 1500 bp matched the full length gene of 1500 bp and showed 99 per cent homology to M. anisopliae and 96 per cent homology to M. flavoviride. In other two fungal species, viz., Nomuraea rileyi and Alternaria solani, the amplified products did not show any homology to chitinase gene

Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt), a climbing, herbaceous perennial plant in family Cucurbitaceae, grows well under hot-humid conditions. The genus name is derived from the Latin coccineus, which means scarlet in reference to the fruit color. Thus, it is also called scarlet-fruited gourd. Other vernacular names are: little gourd in English, courge écarlate in French, pepino cimarrón in Spanish, tam leung or phak tam leung in Thai, kundree or kundru in Hindi, pepasan in Malay, hong-gua in Chinese, and tindori in East Africa (Schippers, 2002; MMPND, 2007; USDA, 2007). The plant is often collected wild or cultivated in home gardens in tropical Asia, and its tender shoots are consumed as potherb (Wasantwisut and Viriyapanich, 2003). Bundled tender shoots of ivy gourd in the village market setting are common scenes in Southeast Asia (Boonkerd et al., 1993; Engle et al., 1998). The fruit of its sweet type cultivar is also used widely as a vegetable in India (Ramachandran and Subramaniam, 1983; Sarnaik et al., 2001; Bharathi, 2007). Ivy gourd has a potential to be a valuable vegetable in the tropics to diversify cropping system in peri-urban and urban agriculture, and to improve diet and health, especially where vitamin A deficiency is of developing concern.

Syn.cordifolia Cogn.,C.indica Wight and Arn,Bryonia grandisL. Family.Cucurbitaceae) is an aggressively climbing vine that  spreads quickly over trees, shrubs, fences or other supports. It is also called  scarlet fruited gourd or little gourd. The name is derived from the Latin coccineus, meaning scarlet,in reference to fruit colour (Wagner et al.,1999). Vernacular names are kundru (hindi), kovakka, kova (malayalam), kovakkai, kovai(tamil), thondakayi (kannada), dondakaya (telugu). Coccinia shoot is a good source of calcium, iron, and fiber and has good texture (Anon., 2002). It is grown mostly in homestead farms for tender fruits in almost all regions of the country. It bears fruits almost through out the year where mild winter prevails. In regions where severe winter occurs, it bears fruit for 8-9 months. Although this is considered as a an under utilized vegetable, it is grown extensively in Chattisgarh, West Bengal, Bihar and Karnataka on a commercial scale and giving remunerative returns to  farmers. Availability of better cultivars and knowledge of  many other preparations and uses of this crop can propel its evolution from an under utilized species to an important horticultural crop in Indian Agriculture.

Ixora is an evergreen flowering shrub valued for its attractive clusters of brightly coloured flowers and its suitability for loose flower production, religious offerings, garlands and landscaping. The crop performs well under tropical and subtropical conditions and is appreciated for its extended flowering period. This chapter presents the botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and important varieties of Ixora. It discusses suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural practices. Special attention is given to pruning and canopy management for improving flowering. The chapter also covers important insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling and yield, providing practical guidance for commercial Ixora production.

The jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. of the family Moraceae, is also called jak-fruit, jak, jaca and, in Malaysia and the Philippines, nangka; in Thailand, khanun; in Cambodia, khnor; in Laos, mak mi or may mi; in Vietnam, mit. It produces the largest known edible fruit. In South-India, it is a common shade tree for many plantation crops. A jackfruit contains 28.7% pulp, 11.5% seed and 59.8% rind, sheath and core.

The place of origin of Jackfruit is not knows exactly, but it is believed to be indigenous to the rainforests of the Western Ghats of India. It is found at low elevations throughout India, Burma, Ceylon, southern China, Malaysia, and the East Indies. It is common in the Philippines, both cultivated and naturalized. It is grown to a limited extent in Queensland and Mauritius. In India it grows in a wild and semi-wild state in Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and states along western Ghats range, particularly Kerala, Karnataka and Maharastra.

Cultivars: Rasdar, Khajwa, Rose-scented or Gulabi, Champa, Hazari, Rudrakshi.

Uses

Both mature and immature fruits as well as seeds are used for various purposes. Ripe fruit is used for dessert purpose and processing into various products, while unripe bulbs are used for making chips. The immature fruit and seeds are used as vegetable. The bark is used for tanning purpose. Heart-wood yield a yellow dye. A yellow dye can also be extracted from the wood particles and used to dye cotton. The latex which flows from all parts of the plant when injured is also used as adhesive. The resins within the latex may also have some value in varnishes. The timber is a medium hardwood with desirable characteristics for making furniture, oars, implements and musical instruments and the wood is also used in construction. It is termite proof and fairly resistant to fungal and bacterial decay. The roots of older trees are good materials for carving and picture framing Leaves are utilized as a green fodder. Several processed products, such as squash, nectar, fruit bar, toffies, jams, canned and dehydrated pulp, beverages, etc. are prepared from the pulp. The seeds can be eaten boiled, roasted or dried and salted as table nuts, or they can be ground to make flour and blended with wheat flour for baking (International Centre for Underutilized crops, 2003).

The jackfruit tree or jack or simply known as jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus) belongs to the mulberry family (Moraceae) and its fruit, jackfruit, is known as the “poor-man's food” (Bose, 1985; Haq, 2006; Ramanani and Rao, 2001; Rowe-Dutton, 1976; Sonwalkar, 1951; Verheji and Coronel, 1992). It is believed to be native to Southwestern India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka (Answers.com, 2009). It is possibly also native to the Philippines and also East to the Malay Peninsula. The fruit is large, oval and covered with a thick rind that has hexagonal protrusions. Inside the fruit, we find the yellow, fleshy and banana-flavoured carpel or large "bulbs" (which are botanically the perianths) massed among narrow ribbons of thin, tough undeveloped perianths (or perigones), around a central, pithy core. Each bulb encloses a smooth, oval, light-brown coloured "seed" (endocarp) covered by a thin white membrane (exocarp).

Shoot and fruit borer : Diaphania (Margaronia) caesalis :  Pyraustidae

The shoot-and fruit-borer D.caesalis is a major pest of jackfruit in India. The larvae are reddish brown with pale brown head and thin hairs from black warts. The caterpillars bore into the shoots, buds and fruits.  Affected shoots wilt or dry up and the fruits rot and drop. The adult is brown with grey elliptical patterns on the wings.

Jam:-Jam is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with sufficient sugar to a reasonably thick consistency. Jam is mainly prepared by apple, pear, sapota, apricot, peach, papaya, karonda etc. It can be prepared from one kind of fruits or from two or more kind of fruits. In general jam contain 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%.