eChapters

ABSTRACT

Systematic studies through stored specimens in herbaria and museum of defined geographical areas provide a set of baseline data for understanding the vegetation composition of a defined ecosyetm. A stored plant collection in herbaria offers a rich portrait of biodiversity, making innumerable contribution to science and human society. Digitization coupled with hosting of such information on world wide web (www) system has been accepted as an important tool for the dissemination of the botanical specimens in the form of databasing, imaging and geo-referencing of voucher specimens. In the present communication, we describe the development of the Janaki Ammal Herbarium (JAH) database that contains a comprehensive and searchable data of voucher snaps, historical background and statistical analysis of 23,225 voucher specimens. The information on JAH database is easy to extract data on botanical names, author citation, variety (if any), family, collection number, specific location, collection date, habitat, collector’s name and remarks on morphology. The goal of the present investigation is to digitize (database, image, georeference) all specimensin JAH, enabling themto be made available through a single portal. At concluding, all vouchers of JAH made publicly accessible via world wide web user interfaces, and also linked to PubMed, NCBI Taxonomy, where the site provide information related to Entrez records, comments and references of the particular species, while Wiki species site is linked to the free species directory. It also provide link of online accessible herbarium-based databases of the world.

1) Phomopsis fruit rot or Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Plants are attacked at all stages of growth.
• On leaves, circular to irregular, clearly defined grayish brown spots having light centers appear. The diseased leaves become yellowish in colour and may drop off.
• Several black pycnidiacan be seen on older spots.
• Lesions on stem are dark brown, round to oval and have grayish centers where pycnidia develop.
• At the base of the stem, the fungus causes characteristic constrictions leading to canker development and toppling of plants.
• On fruits, small pale sunken spots appear which on enlargement cover entire fruit surface. These spots become watery leading to soft rot phase of the disease. A large number of dot like pycnidia also develop on such spots.
• Infection of fruit through calyx leads to development of dry rot and fruits appear black and mummified (Fig.1).

Shoot and fruit borer: Leucinodes orbonalis: Pyraustidae

The pest is active throughout year, but more during monsoon period. Heavy losses up to 60% can occur.

The adult is a greyish brown medium sized moth with white and hyaline wings, having triangular brown and red markings on forewing. A crescent shaped mark facing outside at the apical margin is typical for the species. About 150-250 creamy white eggs are laid singly on leaves, tender shoots, flowers and developing fruits. Egg period is 3-5 days and the hatched larva completes its life in 15 days with 5 instars.

Bronchitis may be defined as a distressing and often serious type of inflammation affecting the windpipe, or bronchial tubes, in the chest. There are two types of bronchitis:

1. Acute Bronchitis
2. Chronic Bronchitis

Acute bronchitis: In acute bronchitis the larynx, trachea and bronchial tubes are acutely inflamed. The tissues are swollen because of irritation; large amount of mucus is secreted and poured into the bronchial tubes to protect the inflamed mucous membrane. Unless this thick, sticky material is removed, it may obstruct the windpipe, causing more severe diseases like atelactasis and pneumonia. The common cold is probably the most frequent cause of acute bronchitis.

During the acute stage of bronchitis there is usually a high fever and some difficulty in breathing. There is a constant cough. Hoarseness may also be present and some pain in the chest. Difficulty in breathing continues until the inflammation has decreased. And thick secretions have removed. Chilliness is present with internal coldness, also cold hands and feet, rawness beneath the sternum, some tightness and oppression of the chest, cough may be dry, hard, ringing, expulsive, paroxysmal, tearing which leaves great soreness under the sternum. After few days the cough, which was at first dry, becomes moist and is accompanied by slight expectoration of mucus and occasionally some blood. As the amount of expectoration increases all the other symptoms decreases, and then in turn abnormal secretion and expectoration also decreases at the end of 7 to 10 days.

1. TERMS RELATED WITH BROWNING

The word BRYONIA means growing rapidly, as the stem grows rapidly.

ALBA, from Latin word ALBUS means white as the roots and flowers are yellowish or white.

Bryonia affects especially the constitution of a robust, firm fiber and dark complexion, with tendency to leanness and irritability. It prefers the right side, the evening, and open air. Warm weather after cold days, to manifest its action most markedly. Bryonia acts on all serous membranes and the viscera they contain.

Bryonia gives remarkable relief in muscular pain, which aggravates on motion, in the treatment of bronchitis and inflammatory and congestive headache.

The character of the pain is "Stitching and tearing". An interesting feature of Bryonia pain is that patient feels better, ameliorated if pressure is applied to the painful part. The patient is comfortable when lying on the painful side.

9.1. Onion (Allium cepa L.)

The onion (Allium cepa), which is also known as the bulb onion, or common onion is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It has been used as food since time immemorial and is an important vegetable all over the world. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense). The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the “common onion group” (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as “onions”. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions. Onion is suggested to have been originated in Asia, particularly Pakistan and Iran.

China is the largest onion producer in the world followed by India. Largest area under onion is in India followed by China. The major onion producing state are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Cultivars/Varieites: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency and maturation. The most popular varieties under cultivation are Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Agrifound Red, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan, Arka Pragati, Baswant 780, Brown Spanish, Co-1, Co-2 Co- 3, Co-4, Early Grano, Hisar II, Kalyanpur Red Round, MDU 1 N-2-4-1, N-53, N-257-9-1, Punjab 48 (S 48), Pusa Madhavi, Punjab Red Round, Punjab Selection, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Udaipur 101, 102 & 103.

ABSTRACT

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch., (Family: Apiaceae) is an important plant of temperate regions and its seeds are used as carminative substance in various food recipes. The seeds of the species act as a good source of economy to the hilly and mountain people. As the species is restricted in its habitat, therefore, it requires mass cultivation practices. Many attempts are already made to cultivate species near to its natural habitat. In recent years some efforts have been done to domesticate this plant in certain areas of India like Shong area in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India, but the cultivation remained very limited. Therefore, in addition to its collection from the wild sources the species needs more scientific intervention in agriculture sector. This species has typical Palaeo-Mediterranean distribution. In India the species is distributed in wild only in North West Himalaya (J&K, HP and UK) which makes its ocurrence rarity in the country. The species restricted its distribution between 1850-3100 meters above mean sea level. Phylogenetically the species is near to Carum carvi L., therefore, C. carvi is the potential adulterant of B. persicum.

Cacao Mealy Bug : Planococcus lilacinus : Pseudococcidae

The adult female mealy bug is 3.9 mm in length and 2.25 mm in width. Eggs are laid on the plant parts within a mass of tangled waxy strands, a female laying 50 to 300 eggs. The eggs hatch in less than 6 hours and the nymphs feeding on the plant juice become full-grown in 20-25 days with a mean of 23 days in the case of females and 17 to 20 days for the males. The male nymph assumes a pupal period which lasts for 4 to 6 days and the adult male is winged. They live for 2-3 days while the adult female has longevity of 12 -16 days. The females dominate the population, 67.6 per cent of the crawlers developing into female mealy bugs.

The name CACTUS was originally given by Theophrastus, to a spiny plant of Sicily in Italy.

Act on circular muscular fibres, hence constrictions. It is the heart and arteries especially that at once respond to the influence of Cactus, producing very characteristic constrictions as of an iron band. This sensation is found in various places, oesophagus, bladder, etc. The mental symptoms produced correspond to those found when there are heart affections, sadness and melancholy. Haemorrhage, constrictions, periodicity, and spasmodic pains. Whole body feels as if caged, each wire being twisted tighter. Atheromatous arteries and weak heart. Congestion; irregular distribution of blood. Favors formation of clots speedily. Great periodicity. Toxic goiter with cardiac symptoms. Cactus is pulseless, painting and prostrated.

We use Cactus for constriction of the heart. It feels as if an iron band were preventing the normal movement of the heart. The pain is worse when the patient is lying on the left side.

Cactus has four leading indications, viz. haemorrhage, constriction, periodicity and spasmodic pain. The whole body feels as if it is caged, with each wire being twisted tighter.

In case of heart problems, there is a fluttering and palpitation of the heart, an irregularity in the action of the heart. The patient suffers from endocarditis, an inflammation of the layer of the epithelial cells which lines the cavities of the heart. There may be mitrial insufficiency with palpitation. There may be swelling of the left hand, of the left leg and foot. The left arm is numb. The circulation of the blood is spasmodic, irregular.

Introduction

Cactus pear belongs to Cactaceae family, is widely grown in Mexico and distributed in arid and semi arid tracts of several other parts of the world, such as Australia, Africa, USA and the Mediterranean basin and South East Asia. The future of arid and semi-arid areas of the World largely depends on the development of sustainable agricultural systems based on the use of appropriate crops. Suitable crops are those that successfully cope with water shortage, high temperature, variabilities, poor soils, and easy management to provide food and forage to poor farmers and herders. Opuntias fit most of the above described requirements. In addition, Opuntias play an important ecological role in combating desertification as well as producing fruits and vegetables for human consumption, forage or fodder for livestock, biomass for energy purposes, cochineal for carmine production, and numerous by-products (beverages, vegetarian cheese, drugs and cosmetics). They also provide shelter and food for various wildlife species in arid environments. The fruit known as tuna is a fleshy berry, varying in shape, size, and colour and has a consistent number of hard seeds. The fairly high sugar content and low acidity of the fruit makes it palatable and delicious. Cactus pear was largely treated as underutilized crop by the scientific world until the beginning of 1980, when there was a multiplication of research and symposia, resulting in a large number of publications, including books and book chapters. Recent research finding has, in fact, revealed the high content of some chemical constituents, which can give added value to this crop on a nutritional and bioactive profile. High levels of betalains, taurine, calcium, magnesium, and antioxidants are nutraceutically important. Moreover, some of the constituents show promising in terms of health beneficial quality. Cactus pear products could supplement to nutritional security and human health. The diverse genotypes of Cactus pear have different coloured fruit that show the presence of different antioxidants profiles.

Description and Distribution
Sweet Flag or Calamus is reported to be common in Kashmir and Kumaon ranges of the Himalayan forests. The rhizomes are collected from the Himalaya forests and brought to Kathgodan, from where they are despatched to Mumbai, Kolkota and Kanuaj. It is a semi-aquatic perennial herb with a creeping and much branched aromatic rhizome. The rhizome is cylindrical or slightly compressed, about 19-25 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long. Externally, it is light brown or pinkish in color, and, white and spongy within. It is thoroughly washed in water, freed from dirt, and rootlets are removed and then carefully dried at a low temperature. It deteriorates with age and is subject to attack by worms. It is this dried rhizome, which constitutes Calamus or Sweet Flag, which is used as a condiment and as a pharmaceutical product . It has a reputation as a healing herb for its use in medicine. It is found wild as a water weed in shallow margins of creeks, lakes, pools and some rivers, throughout India and Sri Lanka, ascending to 1830 meter above mean sea level in the Himalayas. The plant thrives in marshy places and in most situations, like the edges of lakes and banks of streams. It is cultivated in one district , Kotagere, in Karnataka State, India. Curiously enough, the cultivation of Sweet Flag has not been extended to any other part of the State. It is also cultivated in Europe and USA, more for medicinal purposes.
Area, Production And International Trade
No reliable information is available on any of the above aspects in India, except that it is traded both for medicinal and condiment purposes.

This great Hahnemannian antipsoric is a constitutional remedy. Its chief action is on the glands, skin and bones. Increased general and local perspiration, swelling of glands, scrofulous and rachitic conditions generally offer numerous opportunities for the application of Calcarea. A jaded state, mental or physical, due to overwork. Persons of scrofulous type, who take cold easily, with increased mucous secretion, children who grow fat, are large bellied, with large head, pale skin, chalky look, affections caused by working in water. Children crave eggs and eat dirt and other indigestible things; are prone to diarrhoea. Calcarea patient is fat, fair, flabby and perspiring.

In cases of deficient or irregular bone development, deformed extremities, a crooked spine, a softening of the bone, Calcarea Carb comes handy. While the Sulphur patient might be usually thin, lean and wiry, the Calcarea patient might be obese. But like Sulphur, Calcarea carb helps in easy relapses, interrupted convalescence.

ABSTRACT

In the studies on callus induction and somatic embryogenesis in acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia S.) var Sai-Sharbati, different ex-plants and different combinations of growth regulators (NAA, IBA and BA) in MS basal media were tried, the results indicated that cotyledonary segment was the best explant for callus induction among root tip hypocotyl stem, leaf, epicotyl stem and shoot tip explants tested of. The callus grown from epicotyl and hypocotyl stem explant was greenish white and compact. Whereas callus derived from cotylidonary segment and leaf segment was green and friable . Root tip and shoot tip did not exhibit callusing. The callus derived from epicotyl stem and hypocptyl stem explant responded shoot bud formation in MS medium supplemented with NAA 0.2mg/l + BA 0.5mg/l with or without ME 100mg/l. In somatic embryogenesis, full grown callus derived from epicotyl stem explant induced embryo formation within 28.33 days and more shoot bud (6.33) formation.

8.1. Introduction

The term canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health and micro-organisms as well as enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. The canning of fruits and vegetables is canned out in the season when they are available in plenty. The canned products are then sold in the off season for getting better returns and to assure availability of fruits and vegetables throughout the year at reasonable prices.

8.2. History of canning

Important historical developments in canning are as under:

• The credit for invention of canning goes to Nicholas Appert, a French confectioner who was awarded a prize in 1809 by the French government for developing new method of heat preservation of food in sealed container and after whose name the process of canning is known as Appertization.

• In year 1810, Appert published the first book on canning entitled The Art of Preserving Animal and vegetable substances for many years which is the first known work on canning.

• The work of Appert consists of packing food in glass bottles, closing with corks and heating the container in boiling water for several minutes depending upon type of food.

33.1. Aim

To perform canning of fruit and vegetables.

33.2. Theory

Canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health as well as micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Broadly canning is a method of preservation of food for achieving longer shelf-life.

33.3. Principle of canning

Destruction of spoilage causing micro-organisms and enzymes within the sealed containers by means of heat.

Canning: Cannings the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning). The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat. The procedure of the canning should be as follows.

Canning: Canning is the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

History: The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning) and Saddington (1807) in England first described the method of canning. Peter Durand (1810) got first british patent on canning of food in tin container and William under wood introduced canning of fruit on a commercial scale in U.S.A.

Principle of canning: The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat.

The low productivity in guava because of traditional planting distance (6-7 m apart) with no canopy management practices. Guava under traditional and high density planting system, though it gives high yield during initial stage but as the tree advances in age light interception and aeration decreases inside the canopy due to shading and overcrowding, resulting low yields and poor quality. In order to develop efficient canopy architecture for HDP and traditional planting system, the ICAR-CISH has standardized training system and canopy management with objective to have sustained high yield and quality of guava.
Guava bears flower on current shoots produced on mature wood laterally or terminally. In general flowers are produced in the leaf axils in 1 or 2-3 in cluster. The crop load depend on number of new shoots, hence more new shoots resulting more fruiting surface area.
High Density Planting System
Accommodation of more plants per unit area is known as high density planting system. Since guava respond well to pruning and fruiting starts 40-50 days after pruning and more new shoots emerged on which more flowers and fruits appears, thus yield increased. For successful HDP suitable canopy shape and its management is prerequisite. Guava is usually planted 6-7 m distance accommodating 277 to 204 plants per hectare the yield vary 35-80 kg/tree with yield per hectare 15-12 t/ha. In traditional planting density usually fruiting takes place on high on the tree.

Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality fruits. The canopy management, particularly its components like tree training and pruning, affects the quantity of sunlight intercepted by trees, as tree shape determines the presentation of leaf area to incoming radiation. An ideal training strategy centres around the arrangement of plant parts, especially, to develop a better plant architecture that optimizes the utilization of sunlight and promotes productivity. Light is critical to growth and development of trees and their fruits. The green leaves harvest the sunlight to produce carbohydrates and sugars which are transported to the sites where they are needed – buds, flowers and fruits. Better light penetration into the tree canopy improves tree growth, productivity, yield and fruit quality. The density and orientation of planting also impact light penetration in an orchard. Generally, in close planting, quicker shading becomes a problem. An east-west row orientation results in more shading as compared to the western and southern orientation of trees. Strong bearing branches tend to produce larger fruits. The problem of a fruit grower is initially to build up a strong and balanced framework of the trees, then equip them with appropriate fruiting. Obviously, pruning in the early years has to be of a training type to provide strong and stocky framework with well spaced limbs or any other desired shape.

When fruit trees grow naturally; canopy varies greatly from species to species and cultivar to cultivar. It is mainly due to climate, planting density, rootstock, method of propagation, training, pruning, regularity of bearing, soil type, nutrition, irrigation, intercrop, growth regulators used, diseases, pests, environmental pollution etc. Plant canopy means the spread of branches and foliage of a plant.

Canopy management of the fruit tree deals with the development and maintenance of their structure in relation to the size and shape for the maximum productivity and quality. The basic concept in canopy management of a perennial tree is to make the best use of the land and climatic factors for an increased productivity in a three dimensional approach. Ideal canopy means fruit trees should have adequate number of fruiting units, it allows sufficient light and ventilation in to canopy and it should support adequate foliage and protect the fruits from sunburn. It should avoid overlapping of foliage to minimize parasitic leaves. It offers scope for effective coverage of sprays. It should avoid the buildup of microclimate, congenial for pest and diseases development. Tree vigour, light, temperature and humidity play a vital role in the production and quality of the fruits.

Introduction
Mango (Mangiferaindica L) known as “the king of fruits” and “Apple of the Tropics” is most popular fruit in the tropics and sub-tropics. It moved from India to different countries and has gained popularity around the world. It has long been associated with the Indian culture and religious functions. Among different states, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh constitute 23.64 per cent and 22.99 per cent share in the total mango, respectively, in the country. In 2023, Mango production had a total export volume of 78.56 billion MT. India is the biggest mango producer with a total production volume of 25 million MT of mangoes during the year. The top 10 mango producers in 2023 include India (25 million MT), China (3.8 million MT), Indonesia (3.6 million MT), Pakistan (2.7 million MT), Mexico (2.4 million MT), Brazil (2.1 million tons), Malawi (1.7 million MT), Thailand (1.6 million MT), Bangladesh (1.5 million MT) and Vietnam (1.4 million MT). As regards world-wide mango exports, Mexico is the biggest mango exporter with total exports worth $576.36 million in 2023. It was noted that Mexico’s mango exports increased by 5.09% from the previous year. The top 10 mango exporting countries in 2023 include the following:

1. INTRODUCTION

Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopy to optimize its production potential with excellent quality fruits. In many fruit crops, increase in production with enhanced fruit quality is obtained by managing canopies of short statured trees. Small trees capture and utilize the sunlight properly and results into better fruit production.

The fruit growers desire to regulate the growth and development of their trees in a scientific manner. This is because it is not always wise to allow a plant to develop naturally, since unwanted portions may develop which may affect the production. The removal of unwanted parts of plant is thus known as pruning. The practice of pruning as and when performed in an appropriate manner, keeps the plant in such shape and condition as to yield fruits of desired quality.

Canopy management depends on the nature and growth pattern of plant, number of plants /ha and pruning techniques used by the farmers in their fields. Pruning should be done when trees are young to establish their basic shapes and sizes, and continued as trees mature. Trees that grow too close together shade out the lower canopy portions and in turn decrease their fruit setting. These trees are required to be pruned to allow the light to reach the top and lower sides of trees. Pruning is done either to encourage the growth (thinning) or to reduce the tree size (heading back). Thinning of bearing trees encourages vegetative growth, and removes interior branches, encouraging the outward growth of plants. Heading back reduces the outward canopy growth through topping and hedging of branches.

Training and pruning of horticultural crops is very important practice to obtain a strong frame work of tree and sustained productivity. It is necessary to understand the various terms used to make the subject more comprehendible.

Crotch: It is the angle made by the scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to the scaffold limb.

Head: The point on the trunk from which first branch arises.

Leader: It is the main stem growing from ground level up to the tip dominating all other branches.

Low head trees: Trees in which scaffold branches arise within 60-70 cm height from the ground level.

High head trees: Trees in which the scaffold branch arise 120 cm above the trunk.

Scaffold branches: The main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.

Commercial capers are the immature flower buds, which have been pickled in vinegar or preserved in granular salt; they are used raw or cooked as condiment in different recipes. Semi- mature fruits (caper berries) and young shoots with small leaves may also be use as a condiment in salads or as an appetizer before meal. Capers and caper plants, wild and/or cultivated, are used in almost all the area of Capparis subgenus Capparis, extending from West Africa to the Norfolk islands in the Pacific, and most of the species are of alimentary or medicinal interest (Rivera, Inocencio, Obón & Alcaraz, 2003).

Capparis is a term coined by Theophrastus (4th cent. BC) and validated by Dioscorides (1st cent. AD) (Êáððáñéò), although it seems not to have come into wide use until the spread of the Arab world.
 
Caper and its relatives in several European languages can be traced back to Classical Latin Capparis “caper”. Latin Capparis, in turn, was loaned from Greek kapparis [êáððáñéò], whose origin (as that of the plant) is unknown but probably West or Central Asia. Another theory links kapparis to the name of the island Cyprus (Kypros [Êáðñïò]), where capers grow abundantly.

The carambola, Averrhoa carambola L., is believed to have originated in Malaysia and the Molucca but it has been cultivated in southeast Asia for many centuries. It belongs to the family Oxalidaceae. The carambola, Averrhoa carambola L., is usually called balimbing, belimbing, or belimbing manis (“sweet belimbing”), to distinguish it from the bilimbi or belimbing asam, A. bilimbi L. In Ceylon and India, the carambola has the alternate names of kamaranga, kamruk, or other variants of the native kamrakh.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sweet and sour forms are recognized a cultivar in India. In countries like Australia, Japan, Taiwan and, USA named cultivars are grown.

Uses

Fruits are mainly used for dessert purpose. Slightly unripe fruits are used for jelly and pickle. Unripe fruit is also used for dying as it contains potassium oxalate. It is a popular substitute for tamarind in cooking. The acid types of carambola have been used to clean and polish metal, especially brass, as they dissolve tarnish and rust. The juice will also bleach rust stains from white cloth. Unripe fruits are used in place of a conventional mordant in dyeing. Carambola wood is white, becoming reddish with age; close-grained, medium-hard. It has been utilized for construction and furniture.

Carambola (Averrhoa carambola) is a fruit of warm tropical and sub- tropical areas of the world. The fruit is oblong with three to six longitudinal ribs, resulting in a star shaped cross section when cut. Usually they have five ribs which give rise to common name of ‘five corners’ or ‘star fruit’. The tree is medium-sized, attractive and evergreen growing to about 10m. The fruit has emerged as an interesting addition to the table fruit, not only as fresh fruit, but also for its juice, decorative uses and sherbet qualities.

Description and Distribution
Under the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) of the Government of India (amended upto 31 March 1996) both Caraway (Carum carvi Linn.) and Black caraway (Carum bulbocastanum W.Koch) have been described in Hindi (Indian language), as “Siah zira” or “Kala zir””. These two species have similar cultural requirements and are thus covered under one head
Caraway
About 2000 years ago, Roman soldiers dispersed Caraway seed from it’s home in Asia Minor to most of known countries of the world. North Europeans and central Europeans, especially the British and Germans, respectively, have been using it since centuries. In India, also, it is being used since long. Caraway or Caraway seed of commerce is the fruit of a biennial herb. It is a native of North and Central Europe, and is extensively cultivated in Holland, Poland, Russia, Bulgaria, Denmark, Syria, Morocco and to a small extent in England. It has been introduced into the USA, where it is grown as a garden crop. It (Black Caraway or Kala zira) grows wild in India in the north Himalayan regions. It is also cultivated in the Indian plains. It is also cultivated as a cold season crop in the hills of Kashmir and Kumaon at an altitude of 2740 – 3660 meter above mean sea level, as a summer crop. The Caraway plant usually has a fleshy root and a slender branched stem, that attains a height of 0.5-0.6 meter. The compound pinnate leaves are divided into very narrow segments, the small white flowers are borne in fleet, compound umbels; the fruit, when ripe, splits into narrow, elongated carpels. A fruit is 4-6.5mm long and curved, pointed at the ends, and with 5 longitudinal ridges

The typical Carbo patient is sluggish, fat and lazy and has a tendency to have chronic complaints. Blood seems to stagnate in thq capillaries, causing blueness, coldness and ecchymosis. Body becomes blue icy-cold. Bacteria find a rich soil in the nearly lifeless blood stream and sepsis and typhoidal state ensues. Weakness due to excessive diarrhoea, menstruation or other debilitating diseases. The patient may be almost lifeless, but the head is not, coldness, breathe cool, pulse imperceptible, oppressed and quickened respiration and must have air, must be fanned hard, must have all the windows open. The patient faints easily, are worn out must have fresh air. Haemorrhages from any mucous surface. Indicated for persons who have never fully recovered from the effects of some previous illness. General venous stasis, bluish skin, limbs cold.

Consumption of fruit and vegetables has dramatically increased globally during the past a few decades. These are living perishable biological entities which perform a number of metabolic functions and have a short life span. Once the fruit is harvested, respiration and transpiration continue, but only for as long as the fruit can draw on its own food reserves and moisture. It is this limited ability to continue vital metabolic functions which define fruit as perishable. It is also estimated that about 20% of all fruits and vegetables produced are lost each year due to spoilage. The process of the fruit spoilage is just the decomposition of the fruit itself. Once harvested, this begins to deteriorate until eventually it becomes unfit for consumption. This deterioration is known as decay and that leads to spoilage. Latter may be defined as “any sensory change (physical, visual, olfactory or flavour) which the consumer considers to be unacceptable. The gradual changes which cause deterioration and decay in fruits are due to certain organisms and chemicals present in the food and outside the food. Carbohydrates play a major role in the fruit spoilage process (Prasanna et al., 2007) by way of depolymerization leading to decreased molecular size with concomitant increase in the levels of ripening inducing specific enzymes, whose target differ from fruit to fruit. The major classes of cell wall polysaccharides that undergo modifications during ripening are pectins, cellulose, starch, and hemicelluloses (Hallet et al., 2005). The focus of this chapter is to provide information about carbohydrate metabolism during fruit spoilage.

Food is composed of three main constituents viz; carbohydrates, proteins and fats and their derivatives. In addition to these constituents, inorganic mineral elements and diverse organic compounds like vitamins, pigments, flavouring compounds, enzymes, and acids are also present. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins are organic in nature. The percentage of water is large in certain foods. The variation in structure, texture, colour, flavour and nutritive value is because of the varying proportions and arrangements of these constituents.

Carbohydrates are important in foods as a major source of energy, to impart crucial textural properties, and as dietary fiber which influences physiological processes. Digestible carbohydrates, which are converted into monosaccharides, which are absorbed, provide metabolic energy. Carbohydrates account for more than 70% of the caloric value of the human diet. It is recommended that all persons should limit calories from fat to not more than 30% and that most of the carbohydrate calories should come from starch. Non-digestible polysaccharides (all other than starch) comprise the major portion of dietary fiber.

Global climate changing has been a focus for a long time in many fields, the increasing CO₂ concentration in atmosphere was considered as one main driving force for global warming. The increases in greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere contributed to raise concerns over climate change enhanced the role of forests and plantations in the global carbon cycle are growing as a great issue. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is one of the main greenhouse gases because a huge volume of CO₂ is added to the atmosphere, when compare to all other greenhouse gases and made itself as a primary agent of global warming. It contributed 72 per cent of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gases, causing between 9-26 per cent of the greenhouse effect (Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there has been an unprecedented warming trend during the 20th century. Scientists now have estimated that the average global surface temperature is likely to rise by 1.4 to 5.8°C by the end of the 21^st century (IPCC 2007).

The IPCC estimates that the level of carbon dioxide in today’s atmosphere is 31 per cent higher than it was at the start of the Industrial Revolution about 250 years ago. An atmospheric level of CO₂ has risen from 280 ppm at the pre-industrial to the present level of 375 ppm. Most of the increase has occurred in the second half of the 20^th century. The mitigation of climate change demands, determined commitment of scientists to develop strategies to effectively manage the issues of the changing climate through carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration is ought to be a promising solution for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of spices, native to East Indies/ India, originating in the forests of the Western Ghats in Southern India.

• Also grows in Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Indo China and Tanzania.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

2.2. Economic importance

• Used for flavouring various preparations of food, confectionery, beverages and liquors.

• Used as whole pod, seeds or ground.

• Used in garam masala

• Spice mixture seasons meat and vegetable dishes, and masala chai and Turkish coffee.

• Antioxidant and diuretic properties

• May lower blood pressure.

• May contain cancer-fighting compounds.

• May protect from chronic diseases due to anti-inflammatory effects.

• May help with digestive problems including ulcers.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.) acclaimed as the ‘Queen of Spices’ is the true cardamom belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. The cardamom of commerce is the dried ripe fruit and is one of the most important valued spices next only to saffron. It is native of evergreen forests of Western Ghats of South India. Cardamom is a shade loving plant (Pseophyte) thriving well in elevations up to 600-1200 m above MSL under an average annual rainfall of 1500-4000 mm and temperature range of 10-350C. India has been the world’s largest producer of cardamom until 1979-80. Later, Guatemala emerged as world’s premier producer and the exporter of cardamom accounting for about 90 per cent of the global trade. Cardamom is also grown lesser extent in Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania.

Cardamom thrips: Sciothrips cardamomi: Thripidae

Thysanoptera

This thrips attacks other crops like amomum,  tea, colocasia, grapevine, castor, cotton, ginger and turmeric also. The thrips are minute greyish brown insects with fringed wings. They breed on unopened leaves, spindles, leaf sheath, flower bracts and floral tubes .

English name : Small cardamom, Lesser cardamom, Malabar cardamom
Botanical name : Elettaria cardamomum Maton
Family : Zingiberaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 48
Centre of origin : Western Ghats of India
The cardamom of commerce is the dried capsule of Elettaria cardamomum Maton., commonly called the “queen of spices.” Crop is as one of the most significant and highly valued spices globally, it rank  after saffron and vanilla in terms of price and trade significance. The name Elettaria originates from the Tamil word elattari, where ela refers to cardamom fruit, and tari means granules or seeds of the fruit. Meanwhile, the term Cardamomum from the Greek word cardamon, which denotes cardamom. Cardamom is one of the oldest known spices, originated in India’s Southern Western Ghats around 5,000 years ago. It was among the first spices, along with cinnamon, to enter the western trade. Indian cardamom is distinctive in the global spice market due to its superior quality. The dried capsules produce essential oil and oleoresin, which contribute to its aroma and therapeutic properties. These qualities are attributed to the essential oil content (ranging from 3-8%) found in both the seed and husk. The primary components of this oil include 1,8-cineole, terpineol, and limonene.

Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), popularly known as the “Queen of spices”, occupies an important position among the foreign exchange earning commodities. It is cultivated on a commercial scale in Sri
Lanka, Guatemala, Tanzania and Papua New Guinea. Guatemala is the largest producer of cardamom in the World. In India, it is confined to the States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Among these States, Kerala
accounts for the major portion of production (58.4 %), followed by Karnataka (35.2 %) and Tamil Nadu (6.4 %). In Kerala, Cardamom is mainly grown in the erstwhile Travancore area in Idukki district and it is known as the Cardamom Hill Reserve (CHR). Cardamom is a native of the moist evergreen rain forests of the Western Ghats and is grown extensively in the hilly regions at elevations of 700 to 1300 metres as an under crop in forest lands. Cardamom thrives well within certain maximum and minimum thermal regimes. It is believed that diurnal symmetries in temperature trends, if any, have close links with the changes in cloudiness, humidity, atmospheric circulation pattern, winds and soil moisture. The land use pattern of cardamom tracts has changed to a great extent in recent decades. Crops like coffee, black pepper and areca nut are being cultivated at many locations in place of cardamom. With denudation of forests in many cardamom areas, the ideal cool humid microclimate has been destabilized and adversely affected the productivity of the crop.

The young seedling stock and rooted cuttings as well as nursery plants require proper care and nourishment. The operations to be performed regularly in nurseries are as follows.

1. Shifting of plants: The nursery plants grown in the pots or polybags are to be shifted once in 2-3 months to avoid root penetration into the soil. If the taproot penetrates deep into the soil, the chances of mortality increases. Hence shifting of grafts and potted plants has to be done at the said intervals
2. Removal of rootstock sprouts: Once has to keep a constant watch on the sprouts arising on the rootstock, which are to be nipped off as and when, observed, to encourage rapid growth of scion shoots.
3. Irrigation: The young tender seedlings are exacting in their water requirement. Proper and judicious irrigation is an important indicator of a healthy nursery, which solves many problems in the nursery. There are many methods adopted in nurseries. However, it depends upon water availability, kind of nursery plants and its growth stage, etc. These methods are flow or flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, overhead irrigation through rose cans, automizers or sprinkler systems, etc.

Aphids: Myzus persicae : Aleyrodidae

Aphids are considered as the most serious pest of carnation. Both adults and nymphs suck sap from the leaves and debilitate the plants. They transmit carnation ring spot and carnation mosaic virus disease. They are thus more important as vectors. Regular monitoring for the incidence of the aphid and spot spray-ings of contact insecticides on the shoot tips can easily manage the pest.

Cashew apple, a highly potential nutritional source, is almost entirely wasted now. In Goa, cashew apple juice is fermented and distilled for production of alcohol. Cashew apple is juicy and swollen. It is a rich reserve of vitamins and minerals. The cashew apple is the peduncle of the nut. Normally the apple is 8 to 10 fold large by weight compared to cashew nut, at ripe stage. Cashew apples can be of different size and shape. The ripe apple is very juicy and fibrous with thin skin. When fully ripe, it gets detached from the pedicel and falls down. In Brazil, cashew is a popular fresh fruit and dwarf types are being evaluated to fulfil the market requirements of fresh cashew apple in terms of red colour, high sugar, low tannin etc.

Global Scenario

Globally, India’s share in the cashew area and production is 20 per cent and 16 per cent, respectively. India occupies the largest area followed by Ivory Coast (19%), Brazil (16%), Indonesia (12%), Vietnam (7%), Nigeria (7%), Benin (5%), Guinea-Bissau (5%), Mozambique (2%) and Philippines (1%). The highest production was from Vietnam (30%) followed by Nigeria (19%), India (16%), Ivory Coast (11%), Brazil (5%), Indonesia (3%), Philippines (3%), Guinea-Bissau (3%), Benin (2%) and Mozambique (2%). Sometimes back, India was credited as largest producer, processor and exporter of cashew in the world but as other cashew producing countries also acquired the know-how of processing and entered in the international market, currently the India’s share in the International market has shrank to 30 per cent only. On the other hand, the domestic consumption in India has increased considerably, owing to largest consumption of cashew kernel. Every year, over 7-8 lakh tonnes of raw cashew nut are imported mainly from African countries and exporting cashew kernel to USA and UK after processing (Saroj, 2013).

Pattern of Growth Flushes in a Bearing Tree

Two or three peak periods of growth are usually observed in a bearing cashew tree, even though under favourable conditions the stray shoot growth may occur almost every month. The pattern of growth of a bearing tree consists of a generative flower flush (reproductive) and a vegetative flush. The vegetative flush, consisting of lateral shoots, always develops soon after the main crop has matured. Flowering is terminal and is universally preceded by the vegetative flush.

There are two types of branching in cashew, intensive and extensive.

Brief History of Cashew Nut Processing Industry in India

As is known in the Cashew Trade Circles, cashewnut was not an indigenous product of India. A few hundred years back, the Portuguese brought it to Goa in India, from Brazil. The Portuguese also took it to their other colonies in Africa viz. Mozambique on the East Coast and Angola on the West Coast. In Mozambique, it spread all over the territory i.e. from Lourenco in the South to Ibo in the North and thence to British East Africa (now Tanzania) and Kenya. Though, now it is known as cashewnut, still in Mozambique and India, it is known by its original Portuguese name ‘CAJU’.

Botanical Name : Anacardium occidentale L.
Family : Anacardiaceae 
Origin : North East Brazil in Latin America. 
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=42
Type of fruit : Droup. 
Type of Inflorescence : Panicles (Both male and  hermaphrodite flowers occur on the same inflorescence)

Cashew research in India dates back to 1950’s when Indian Council of Agricultural Research sanctioned ad-hoc schemes in the then composite Madras, Travancore, Cochin and Bombay States. Thus, Kottarakkara (Kerala) in 1952; Ullal (Karnataka in 1953 and Vengurla (Maharashtra) in 1957 came into being as pioneering cashew centres in the country. More research schemes were started with ICAR’s assistance in 1955 at Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh) and in 1956 at Deragaon (now shifted to Kothiali) in Assam. During the period, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore and National Chemical Laboratory, Pune were also engaged in developing technologies for economic utilisation of cashew apple and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL). In the second phase of strengthening cashew research in India, the ICAR started All India Spices and Cashewnut Improvement Project in 1971 linking countrywide network among different research centres. Collection, conservation and evaluation of germplasm, hybridization and selection, vegetative propagation, and nutritional studies were the primary areas under this programme.

Maharashtra, the first state was to release cashew variety under the name Vengurla-1 through Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli in the year 1974. So far, 8 varieties have been released from Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla (M.S.), of which, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-6, Vengurla-7 and Vengurla-8 are widely accepted for commercial plantation.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. Often referred as ‘wonder nut’, it is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazel nut and walnut. It is a zero-cholesterol nut with high content of unsaturated fatty acids, proteins and carbohydrates with a right combination of amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Kernels extracted from nuts are often consumed as such or used in confectionery items and various kinds of dishes. Kernel oil of pale yellow colour is used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) extracted from its shell has many industrial applications - for making paints, resins, flame-retardants, etc. Testa covering the kernel, rich in tannin, can be an acceptable substitute for wattle bark tannin in leather industry. Cashew apple, the pseudo-fruit, is rich in vitamin C. It is used to cure scurvy, diarrhea, uterine complaints and dropsy.

The Tea mosquito bug : Helopeltis antonii : Miridae

The host range of this bug also includes tea, neem, moringa and guava. The attack can cause inflorescence blight, terminal drying of young shoots and heavy yield loss. The adult is a reddish brown bug with black head, red thorax, and black and white abdomen. The easiest identifying character for this pest is a pin like process on the scutellum mid dorsally on the thorax. It is reddish brown, erect and knobbed, and would seem as a pin inserted into the scutellum.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a native of Brazil and was introduced in India by the Portuguese during the16th Century. It is grown in India, Brazil, Vietnam, Tanzania, Mozambique,
Indonesia, Sri Lanka and other tropical Asian and African countries. The crop is grown within the latitudinal belt of 27°N and 28°S of the equator experiencing the tropical climates for its growth and development. It is categorised under one of the plantations along the West and East Coasts. To a limited extent cashew is cultivated in Gujarat, Chattisgarh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The crop is mostly grown in low and midlands along the West and East Coasts of India in sandy and laterite soils. Since it is mostly grown along the Coast across the Country it is also known as the Coastal Tree. Cashew grows along the West and East Coasts of India from South to North, lying between 09°N and 23oN latitudes. Though it grows beyond 23°N latitude, its production is relatively low as the reproductive phase coincides with cold injury/low temperature during
winter (December-February). Being a tropical coastal tree, it cannot thrive under low winter temperature. There is significant yield variation in cashew among the different agroclimatic zones of the country. Year-to-year yield variation is also significant as the crop is weather sensitive. This crop may come up even in waste lands with specific crop management practices along the West Coast and as a shelter belt and wind break along the East Coast.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of America and Brazil.

• Introduced in India during later half of the Sixteenth Century.

• In 2017, Vietnam, India, and Ivory Coast were the major producers.

• Cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal; also in few pockets of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.

• Cashew is called gold mine of waste lands.

6.2. Economic importance

Cashewnut, Anacardium occidentale is one of the important plantation crops grown for its delicious kernel. It is mostly grown in coastal belts of South-West and South-East India including the states like Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal and also in the non-traditional areas including inlands of central India and parts of Northeastern regions. It is an important cash crop and has attained the status of export-oriented commodity. In India alone around 200 insect pests have been reported on cashew causing damage during different stages of crop growth. Stem and root borer and Tea mosquito bugs, blossom webber and leafminer pests of economic importance, the details of which is given hereunder:

Stem and root borer, Plocaederus ferrugineus L. and P. obesus Gahan (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

It is a very serious pest of cashew in both east and west coasts of India. It is also recorded on sapota, drumstick and citrus trees. Among the two species, P. ferrugineus is the commonly occurring species. Eggs are pale white, ovoid and smooth measuring about 4.5 x 2.0mm. The grubs are stout, fleshy ivory yellow with dark brown head and wrinkled body without legs, and measures 75mm in length, when full grown. The adult of P. ferrugineus is a medium sized (2540mm) dark brown longicorn beetle