eChapters

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in Tropical America

• Distributed in all tropical and sub-tropical regions

9.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and hypophyllanthin

• Antioxidant with free radical scavenging properties due to presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase.

• Effective in treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc.

• Treatment of Hepatitis B and j aundice

Fruits, the vivid and delightful offerings of the nature, undergo remarkable transformations as they travel from the orchard to our dining tables. These changes indicate the significance of post-harvest physiology, which is the scientific study that reveals the secrets of how fruits behave after they are picked, including the mechanisms that affect fruit quality and how long it may be stored. The next section provides definitions of the various stages and key players involved in the processes of fruit maturity, ripening, and post harvest physiology. These topics will be further explored in the subsequent sub-sections of this chapter.

Fruit developmental physiology

The life cycle of horticultural commodities (fruits and vegetables) can be effectively categorized into three primary physiological stages after fruit set or initiation, namely growth, maturation, and senescence. Still, a lack of obvious differentiation exists among the several stages. Growth encompasses the process of cell division followed by cell enlargement, which determines the ultimate size of the product. Maturation typically begins prior to the cessation of growth and involves various activities across different commodities. The stages of growth and maturity are commonly denoted as the developmental phase. Senescence can be described as the phase in which anabolic biochemical processes transition into catabolic processes, resulting in the ageing and eventual demise of the tissue. Ripening, a term specifically used for fruit, is typically regarded as the initial phase of senescence that occurs during the later phases of development. Defining the transition from growth to senescence is rather straightforward.

The production of fruit crops is largely dependent on the environmental conditions and nutritional status of the plants. Any alteration in the environmental conditions and nutritional status may results in different physiological disorders which affect the growth of the plants and also the quantity as well as quality of the fruits. The precise and early recognition of physiological disorders is important for the timely adaptation of remedial strategies to reduce the crop loss. Physiological disorders in fruits crops may be due to single factors or multiple factors may be involved in the appearance of physiological disorders. A sound knowledge about the cause of physiological disorder is useful to adopt suitable remedy for the disorder.

Introduction

The abnormal growth behavior or unusual external and/or internal conditions of fruits which results due to adverse environmental conditions and nutritional imbalances are considered as physiological disorders. Physiological disorder is best defined as external or internal malfunctioning resulting from improper environmental or cultural conditions before and/or after harvest. Variation from normal temperature, light, moisture, nutrient, harmful gases, insufficient supply of growth regulators, deficiencies or excesses of nutrient etc. are some of the important environmental and cultural factors of physiological disorders (Fig. 1). Physiological disorders affect the quality as well as quantity of the fruit crops. Detection of precise physiological disorders is not easy and requires a strong knowledge regarding them.

Physiological disorders are abnormalities in plants which are associated to non-pathogenic factors. A plant or its parts may show unusual growth, function or deformity. Such abnormalities are widely referred to as disorders. These may be incited by nutrients deficiency or excess, hormonal imbalance, abnormal growing conditions etc. Some commonly observed disorders have been dealt in here suitably.

Fruit ripening is a phenomena during which horticulture produce undergoes a series of complex physical and biochemical changes initiated through a series of hormones (Ethylene, auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellins, jasmonic acid, etc.) to attain maximum physiological maturity and favourable organoleptic properties. These changes lead to alterations in colour, texture, aroma, flavour and nutrient composition. In a nut shell, ripening involves increase in pulp to peel ratio, solubilisation of pectic substances, degradation of complex carbohydrates, organic acids and chlorophyll, accumulation sugars, flavour volatiles, polyphenolic compounds and pigments (carotenoids, xanthophylls and anthocynanins). The extent of these changes guide harvesting, readiness for processing and consumption decisions, with physic-chemical alterations serving as indicators of optimum ripeness. Respiration rate, ethylene and ABA are key regulators of fruit ripening in climacteric and non-climacteric fruits, respectively. In climacteric fruits, ABA interacts with ethylene, influencing the synthesis of ethylene itself. Although there is ample documentation on the involvement of hormones in fruit development and ripening, our understanding of the functions of various hormones throughout growth, maturation, and specific ripening processes remains incomplete.

In general terms, dormancy can be defined as a period during the biological cycle of the plant in which growth of the whole organism (seed) or a plant organ (bud, tuber, corm etc.) is suspended eventhough the environmental conditions for growth may be favourable. More specifically, dormancy refers to a condition in which growth is inhibited by a restriction of essential metabolic processes, such as water uptake, gas exchange and cell division, either as a result of endogenous dormancy-controlling factors or in response to exogenous factors such as changes in the environment. It is distinct from a transient state of quiescence or rest imposed by an unfavourable environment in that dormancy persists even when the environment becomes favourable for growth whereas quiescence ceases.

For wild plants, dormancy has evolved as a means of enabling the plant to endure periods of stress due to drought or low temperatures and is therefore critical for the survival of the species. In cultivated arable or vegetable crops, breeding has generally led to a loss of dormancy or a reduction in the length of the dormant period. In arboreal crops of temperate climates, however, bud dormancy is still an essential feature of the annual growth cycle of the tree.

Growth: Growth involve cell division subsequently cell elongation. Increase in volume that is associated with fruit growth largely result of cell division or cell elongation or both. In some fruit such as apple, extension of intercellular space may also contribute the growth. Generally growth by cell division in early stage whereas, cell elongation during later stage.

Two distinct type of growth curve are observed when increase in such variable such as fresh weight, volume and dry weight of fruit.

1. Single sigmoid curve
2. Double sigmoid curve

In case of single sigmoid growth curve firstly there is rapid increase in size then after decline so there is only one rapid growth is observed e.g. Apple, pear, tomato, cucumber and strawberry.

In case of double sigmoid two rapid growth period are separated by an intermediate period that is less growth or no increasing growth curve. Double sigmoid growth curve can be used as two successive sigmoid curve thus there are three clearly define stage of growth.

Fruit ripening is a highly coordinated, genetically programmed and an irreversible phenomenon involving a series of physiological, biochemical and organoleptic changes which finally lead to the development of a soft edible ripe fruit with desirable quality attributes. Ripening is the process where changes take place in the fleshy fruit and make it edible. It represents the unique coordination of developmental and biochemical pathways leading to changes in colour, texture, aroma and nutritional quality of mature seed-bearing plant organs (Barry and Giovannoni, 2007). Physiologically mature fruit is transformed from an unfavourable state of firmness, texture, colour, flavour and aroma to favourable state for consumption. It is the final phase in the development of fruit and involves major metabolic changes and it is normally an irreversible event. The ripening phase does not start until the fruit has developed considerably from the tissues present at anthesis and it is difficult to stimulate ripening before it attains maturity. The ripening changes which are common during softening are accumulation of pigments and changes in cell wall.

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and th chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to hav anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effect of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A2 or other enzymes Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in th present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication o plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitr production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in M liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection fo more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the productio of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biologica conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other cultur stages.

1. Introduction

Plant metabolites are the major sources of pharmaceutical food additives, fragrances and pesticides. It is estimated that the market potential for herbal drugs in the western world alone could range from US $ 4.9 billion to 47 billion by the year 2000 if the AIDS epidemic continues unchecked (Biotechnology and Development, 1991). A similar situation exists for plant based food additives, fragrances and bio-pesticides. The natural resources for plant based chemicals are limited but the consumer preference for natural products is greater. Alternative avenues for plant products have gained prominence during the past few years. In recent years, plant Biotechnology has gained considerable importance for the production of phytochemicals (Heble, 1996).

During the past three decades, several phytochemicals with biological activities have been identified from higher plants for plant tissue culture industry (Verpoorte et al., 1991). Vincristine, vinblastine, artemisinin, taxol and podophyllotoxin are in the list of approved drugs. Some products under clinical trials are forskolin, castanospermine, ginkgolides and hyperin (Heble, 1996). In recent years, there has been renewed interest in screening higher plants for novel biologically active products particularly to combat such ailment that have defined synthetics and antibiotics. This has resulted in the development therapeutics used in the treatment of cancer, hypertension, AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

Abstract

Recently there has been increasing interest in plants and plant-derived compounds as medicinal agents. In Ayurveda, a wide range of medicinal uses of Pterocarpus santalinus is described. Many important bioactive phytocompounds have been extracted and identified from the heartwood of P. santalinus. The major bioactive compounds present in the heartwood of P. santalinus are santalin A and B, savinin, calocedrin, pterolinus (K,L) and pterostilbenes. These phyto-compounds present only in small amounts and have more effect than nutrients. The heartwood of the plant is used traditionally for the treatment of inflammation, diabetes, headache, skin diseases, jaundice, and in wound-healing. A wide range of pharmacological activities and health benefits of P. santalinus have been reported, including antioxidative, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties, and protective effects on liver, gastric mucosa and nervous system. All these protective effects were attributed to bioactive compounds present in P. santalinus. Most of the secondary metabolites reported from this plant are terpenes, phenolics, flavones and sterols. The present communication gives the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of P. santalinus on health with up-to-date information.

Phytochemistry

Pytochemistry is concerned with enormous variety of organic substances that are elaborated and accumulated by plants and deals with chemical structures of these substances and biosynthesis, and their natural distribution and biological function. Chemical constituents of plants can be classified in different ways. Based on biosynthetic origin, solubility properties and presence of certain key functional groups, it is classified as phenolic compounds, substances that are readily recognized by their hydrophilic nature and by their common origin from aromatic precursor shikimic acid. Terpenoids share lipid properties and a biosynthetic origin from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (Fig. 1). Organic acids, lipids, alkenes and related hydrocarbons, polyacetylenes and sulphur compounds are derived biosynthetically from acetate. Nitrogen compounds of plants like amino acids, amines, alkaloids, cynogenic glycosides, indoles, purines, pyramidines and cytokinins and chlorophyll are basic substances recognized by their positive responses to either ninhydrin or Dragendorff reagent. Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, sugar alcohols and cyclitols are water-soluble carbohydrates and their derivatives. Macromolecules of plants such as nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides are easily separated from other constituents by their high molecular weights (Harborne, 1984). Some of the therapeutically active compounds are discussed below:

1. Introduction Plants naturally contain compounds called phytochemicals. Due to their numerous therapeutic applications, these phytochemicals are becoming more and more well-known these days. Phytochemicals are essential in the fight against a variety of illnesses, including cancer, arthritis, and asthma. These phytochemicals have no side effects like pharmaceutical compounds do. Because the phytochemicals treat illnesses without harming people, they can also be referred to as “man-friendly medicines.” The primary topics of this study are phytochemical collection, extraction, and qualitative and quantitative analysis. In order to protect themselves against herbivores, many plants secrete chemical substances. Examples of therapeutic plants that include the main groups of pharmacologically active phytochemicals are provided below. Weeds that contain phytochemicals, like chickweed, dandelion, and nettle, are frequently found surrounding human settlements. Many phytochemicals, including curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, genistein, and resveratrol are pan-assay interference compounds and are not useful in drug discovery.

Introduction

Phytosterols, phytostanols and their esters are a group of steroid alcohols and esters that occur naturally in plants as nonsaponifiable fraction of plant oils. Phytosterols (including plant sterols and stanols) cannot be synthesized by humans, and all plant sterols and stanols in the human body therefore originate from the diet. They are known to have several bioactive qualities with possible implications for human health. Their properties for reducing blood cholesterol levels, as well as their other beneficial health effects, have been known for many years. It was recognized in the 1950s that plant sterols lower serum concentrations of cholesterol. Plant sterols might also protect against certain types of cancer such as colon, breast and prostate. Scholarly reviews have all confirmed the health benefits and safety of phytosterols.

People with high blood cholesterol levels are typically advised by health professionals to exercise and consume a diet high in fiber and low in saturated fats and cholesterol. Although these measures can reduce blood cholesterol, sometimes they don’t go far enough. Other cholesterol-lowering interventions may be needed, including cholesterol-lowering medicines or adding phytosterol esters to the diet. The primary phytosterols in the diet are sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol and typical consumption of plant sterols is approximately 160 – 400 mg/day. The enrichment of foods with phytosterols is one of the recent developments in functional foods to enhance the cholesterol-lowering ability of traditional food products.

Pickles:- Pickles are a product which is prepared by using the common salt or vinegars of fruits and vegetables. It is a good appetizer and adds to the palatability of a meal. It’s also help full to stimulating the flow of gastric juices and thus helps full indigestion. Pickles are mainly preserving by salt, vinegar, oil and it can also be preserved by the mixture of salt, spices, vinegar and oil.

Ingredient of 1kg mango pickles: Mango piece 1kg, salt 150g, fenugreek powder 25g, turmeric powder 15g, nigella seed 15g, red chilli powder 10g, clove headless 8 number, black pepper 15g, cumin 15g, cardamom large 15g, aniseed powder 15g, asafoetida 2g and mustard oil 350ml.

ABSTRACT

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.is a perennial herbaceous plant species of the family Scrophulariaceae growing at high altitude regions of Himalayas, and recorded to have a wide application in Ayurvedic system of medicine known by the name of kutki. In traditional system, this plant species is used to cure disorders of liver, respiratory tract fever, dyspepsia, chronic diarrhea and scorpion sting. P. kurroa is a growing source of interest because of having number of interesting activities such as immnunomudulatory, hepatoprotective and anticancer, highly used by pharmaceutical companies for development of new molecules and herbal botanical formulations. It has been scientifically validated that this species is a repository of bioactive chemicals such as picrosides, kutkoside, and cucurbitacins isolated and characterized mainly from the roots of this plant. This communication deals with the chemistry and biological activities associated with its main chemical constituents, and can be helpful in development of new drug as medicine. This communication will provide a baseline information and useful tool for researchers who work on the area of natural products, and look for new direction in drug discovery.

Introduction

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth is an important alpine medicinal plant of the Himalayan region. The root and rhizome of P. kurroa are source of the crude drug, which is characteristically bitter in taste and is linked to the medicinal properties. In Indian system of medicine, the species popularly known as Kutki, is an important constituent of several drugs items. This plant also finds a place in Chinese system of medicine where it is known as Hun-hung lien. Chemically, compounds of interest in Picrorhiza are iridoid glycosides: picroside-I and picroside-II. Material for crude drug has traditionally been extracted from the wild. Natural stands have sharply dwindled due to over extraction and habitat degradation. The species was listed as “endangered” in 1997 by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Commercial cultivation is not popular, but is urgently recommended.

Haemorrhoids or piles are due to swelling or enlargement of the veins that supply the rectal outlet of the body. Localized inflammation and bleeding, and also thrombosis in many cases often complicate this painful condition. People who suffer from constipation and other bowel disorders are more likely to develop haemorrhoids. Piles are also more common in pregnancy, and in conditions affecting the liver and upper bowel.

The pineapple is the leading edible member of the family Bromeliaceae which encompasses about 2,000 species, mostly epiphytic and many ornamentals. Pineapple (Anans comosus (L) Merr), belonging to the family Bromeliaceae, is one of the most important commercial fruit of the world. Its pleasant characteristic aroma and taste make it a choicest fruit both for fresh consumption and processing.

Now known botanically as Ananas comosus Merr. (syns. A. sativus Schult. f., Ananassa sativa Lindl., Bromelia ananas L., B. comosa L.), the fruit has acquired few vernacular names. It is widely called pina by Spanish-speaking people, abacaxi in the Portuguese tongue, ananas by the Dutch and French and the people of former French and Dutch colonies; nanas in southern Asia and the East Indes. In China, it is po-lomah; in Jamaica, sweet pine; and in Guatemala often merely pine.

The region which includes Central and Southern Brazil, northern Argentina and Paraguary, is believed to be the place of origin of Pineapple. From here it has spread to all countries of the tropic and some parts of the sub-tropics. It has been introduced to India in 1548. The major pineapple producing countries of the world’s are Hawaiian, Island, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Brazil, China, Kenya, Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, Australia, India and Indonesia.

Cultivars: Kew or Giant Kew, Queen, Mauritius, Cayenne, Red Spanish, Singapore Spanish, Haricharanvita, Charlotte, Rothchild. In Assam there are two indigenous varieties–Jaldhup Desi and Lakhat, both of which fall in Queen group.