eChapters

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Owing to a varied agro-ecological and eco- edaphic condition prevalent in one or other part of the country, quite a large number of crops are grown in different parts of India. India is rich in bio-diversity with four hotspots out of twenty-five in the world. About 356 domesticated plant species having economic and botanical importance and 326 species with their wild relatives are found in Indian sub-continent. Besides the above, 9500 other plant species are also available. More than 50 different types of fruits, 50 different types of vegetables, 95 types of spices and condiments, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and ornamental crop plants have been recorded. To avoid confusion and identity, the horticultural plants are grouped into different categories based on similarity or dissimilarities. Grouping of the crop plants with similar characteristics is referred as classification.

Classification is system of placing an individual or a member in various groups or to categories them according to particular plan or sequence which is in conformity with the nomenclature. From time-to-time for purposes of convenience plants or fruits have been classified in various ways that makes possible to refer them to a large number of kinds under a group name without enumerating or specifying individually. The basis of these groupings varies according to the features of fruits or growth of the fruit plants that have been under classification at the time.

Knowledge of classification of horticultural plants is very useful to the horticulturists because it serves: (1) to identity and name them, (2) to afford at least some idea of the closeness of their relationship i.e. line of descent to other kinds, (3) to suggest with what other kind they possibly may or may not be interbred or crossed, (4) to suggest the kinds with which they possibly may or may not be inter-grafted, and (5) often to suggest certain soil and the cultural requirements, climatic adaptations etc. However, the classification of fruit trees or fruits and vegetables on the basis of consumer’s rating also gained attention in recent years. The consumers’ rating is mainly based on the size, shape, nutritive value and marketability of them. Each of these classifications is quite different from the other classification or groupings.

Basically, the fruit trees, as suggested by many authors, have been classified on the basis of their botany comprising of taxonomic ancestry, morphologic features, physiological functions, adaptability etc. or on the basis of agricultural and horticultural requirements. But the consumers’ rating has not been properly covered in the earlier classification. Generally based on botanical relationship the plants are classified as under.

Grouping plants in different categories on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities is referred to as classification, which helps for study of these crops in various perspectives. India is endowed with a rich diversity of horticultural plant wealth due to varied agro-climatic conditions. Number of fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, spices, condiments, plantation crops, etc. is under commercial cultivation in different parts of the country under different sets of growing conditions.

The systematic study of all these crops becomes a difficult and more repetitive part. To avoid it; classification of horticultural crops on different aspects has been made to deal with all these plants separately. Classification of horticultural crops has been made in different groups on similarity or dissimilarity of attributes. Plants having similarity in either of the traits are placed under one group. The overall objective of the classification is to categorize the horticultural plants and make the recollections very easy and convenient.

Introduction

The book has been framed as a text book cum vegetable production manual for both under graduate and post graduate students of Agriculture/ Horticulture as well as commercial vegetable production professionals. This book has been oriented on different management practices of vegetable culture in open field condition viz., Classification of vegetable crops, Management of seedlings in the nursery, Water managent, Plant nutrient management, Pollination management, Integrated pest management, Biological management of diseases, Weed management and Production technology of different vegetable crops.

Classification of vegetable crops

Vegetables are defined as herbaceous plant origin material with generally low calorific value providing micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants, fibre and induce alkaline reaction inside human body. Vegetable crops are not only botanically different but also their cultural and climatic adaptation shows wide variability. It is, therefore, necessary to classify the vegetable crops for their easy recognition. Vegetable crops can conveniently be classified “Botanically” for the purpose of vegetable breeding and according to “Method of culture” from the point of crop husbandry.

Botanical classification

The crops used for vegetable purpose in the world belong to 1200 species under 78 families and of them, more than 860 species under 59 families belong to dicotyledoneae and about 340 species under 19 families belong to monocotyledoneae. In the tropical and subtropical parts of the world, about 90 species of vegetable crops are cultivated, but hardly 20 of them are commercially important.

In the present botanical classification, over 140 different vegetable crops under 6 monocotyledoneae and 20 dicotyledoneae families have been included.

Classification of Vegetable Crops

Vegetables are defined as herbaceous plant origin product with no calorific value and providing micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants, fibre and alkaline reaction inside human body. Vegetable crops are not only botanically different but also their cultural and climatic adaptation also shows wide variability. It is, therefore, necessary to classify the vegetable crops for their easy recognition. Vegetable crops can conveniently be classified “Botanically” for the purpose of vegetable breeding and according to “Method of culture” from the point of crop husbandry.

Botanical Classification

Botanical classification involves grouping of plants into kingdom, division, sub-division, phylum, sub-phylum, class, sub-class, order, family, genera, species, sub-species and variety. The broadest group in which vegetables are discussed is family. The genus and species constitute the scientific name. Scientific names are accepted worldwide and there cannot be any confusion as per their nomenclature. All vegetable crops belong to the division Angiospermae. The division Angiospermae has two classes: Monocotyledoneae and Dicotyledoneae.

The crops used for vegetable purpose in the world belong to 1200 species under 78 families and of them, more than 860 species under 59 families belong to dicotyledoneae and about 340 species under 19 families belong to monocotyledoneae. In the tropical and subtropical parts of the world, about 90 species of vegetable crops are cultivated, but hardly 25 of them are commercially important in terms of market demand, development of variety/hybrid and seed production. In the present botanical classification, over 140 different kinds of vegetable crops under 7 monocotyledoneae and 20 dicotyledoneae families have been included.

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

Quite a large number of vegetable crops are grown in the country either on a commercial scale or limited to backyards of homesteads. A few crops have similarity while others have dissimilarity in their climatic and soil requirements, parts used, method of cultivation etc. While describing individual vegetables, there is possibility of repetition in many aspects. In order to avoid repetition, it is essential to classify or group them into different classes/groups. Different methods of classification followed in vegetables are described below:

I. Botanical classification

Botanical classification is based on taxonomical relationship among different vegetables. Plant kingdom is divided into four viz. Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta. All vegetables belong to Division Angiospermae of Spermatophyta. It is further divided and two classes viz., Monocotylydoneae and Dicotylydoneae.

Growth and development of any horticultural crop is mostly depending upon two chief natural factors i.e. climate and soil, which decides success or failure. Therefore, understanding about climate and soil requirements for different horticultural crops for optimum growth and development is a prerequisite for profitable farming.

There is often confusion between weather and climate. Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time e.g. from day to day or week to week. It is current atmospheric conditions including temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity, sky condition at a given place. Climate on the other hand, is the average condition of weather over a longer period of time. Climate is the sum of all the statistical weather information that helps to describe a place or region.

Climate includes different factors namely temperature (minimum & maximum),

Introduction

Climate resilience is the capacity of a system, community, or person to foresee, prepare for, react to, and recover from the consequences of climate change while simultaneously preserving critical functions and minimising long-term harm. This ability is described as the ability to adapt to climate change. In order to handle the issues that are brought about by a changing climate, which include increasing temperatures, severe weather events, rising sea levels, and altering weather patterns, it is necessary to take a proactive approach.

Global warming and climate change are becoming major challenges in the front of global community to deal with. Climate change is no more a myth but it is reality. The IPCC, 5^th assessment report clearly stated that “evidence of climate- change impacts is strongest and most comprehensive for natural systems”. Natural and human systems of almost all continents in the world have been affected by climate change in recent decades (IPCC, 2014). Agriculture is essential for sustainability of human life on earth but change in climate is threatening its sustainability. In recent decades all aspects of food security has been potentially affected by climate change, including food access, utilization, and price stability. It has been projected that in absence of adaptation measure, increases in local temperature by 2°C or more above late-20^th-century levels will negatively impact production of the major crops in tropical and temperate regions.

Agriculture is one of the major economic activities responsible for food security and livelihood for millions of people. Success, production and productivity of agricultural crops are highly dependent on climate, soil and water. Thus climate change will have adverse effect on agricultural crops. High atmospheric temperature, unpredicted erratic rainfall, rapid soil degradation and evolution of new insect and pests due to climate change will offer new challenge to sustain agriculture. Many part of the world and India is already experiencing impact of climate change on agricultural crops (like early maturity, geographical shift and occurrence of new pests) and these impacts are predicted to increase rapidly in future. The increasing concern about adverse impact of climate change on food security has led to extensive research and documentation of impact of climate change on field crops like rice, wheat and maize. While the clear and holistic idea about impact of climate change on horticultural crops like vegetables and fruits are not well documented especially in developing countries like India.

Climate Change: Understanding our Earth and Atmosphere

Our Mother Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system and the third from the sun. It is also the sole planet whose name comes from old English language only, and not from names of any other celestial bodies, whose names originated mostly from Greek/Roman mythology. Earth has a diameter of 6378 km, of which the earth crust (uppermost skin) is only 24 km. Earth is the only planet where water exists as liquid and 71% of its surface is covered by water. The earth’s atmosphere is made up mostly of nitrogen (77%) and oxygen (21%) gases. CO₂ consists of a very small (trace) fraction (0.03%) of atmosphere, but is most vital for the life cycle. When earth was created, it has got much higher CO₂ than today, and all of them have been sequestered in rocks as carbonates and dissolved in oceans and a negligible amount is distributed in plant communities. This extremely small quantity of CO₂ is keeping life on earth, by maintaining earth’s temperature at a comfortable 14°C (without CO₂, earth’s temperature would have been -21°C). This effect is called the ‘greenhouse effect’, revolving which all issues of climate change exist. It is also to be noted that water vapour is also an important greenhouse gas (GHG). It is to also to be noted that in spite of substantial increase in solar constant, earth’s average temperature has remained stable for billions of years. It is understood that this was possible through variation in CO₂, and it is the biological processes (Earth biosphere) that controlled the environment over years (Gaia hypothesis).

The greenhouse technology is all about the controlling of ambient climatic factors to create a favourable ‘micro-climate’ for the crop growth. The magnitude of such control may differ from minimal to maximum. It may control single (like rain) to multiple aspects (like rain, temperature, humidity, sun-light, wind, carbon-di-oxide, etc in combination). It can simply be done by manipulating natural factors using the suitable/appropriate design of the greenhouse or can be done in complex form by using/installing different devices and packages (may be software) with necessary automation in a specifically designed greenhouse.

It is a vast subject and very difficult to have a thumb-rule for such climate control mechanism due to seasonal climatic variations and most importantly due to the inter-relation effect between each and every climatic factors. Thus, it should be given sufficient space to maneuver the mechanism designed for a specific greenhouse targeting a specific crop.

Ways to control these climatic factors in a greenhouse

There are two basic ways to control the climate inside greenhouse.

Primarily, through a suitable design of the greenhouse itself, the inside microclimate can be controlled, obviously up to a certain level. Through manipulation of the design, particularly the naturally ventilated system, the rain water, temperature, humidity, CO_2, wind, etc can be controlled up to a certain level in favour of the crop.

Secondarily, by introducing equipments, tools, devices, etc we can control the micro-climate of a greenhouse. In most cases, it can take care of a number of climatic factors, like temperature and humidity, sun-light and temperature, etc simultaneously to provide a crop-wise micro-climate inside.

Frequently we use both the basic controlling methods, in combination, to achieve the required climate control system in a particular greenhouse.

We have already discussed about the different climatic factors that affect the crop micro-climate. Now we will discuss the basic control mechanism of each and every climatic factors and the related technology that can be utilized for greenhouse.

Climate change exposes onion production to irregular rainfall, heat, drought, flooding and increasing pest and disease pressure. These stresses can reduce yield, damage bulb quality, increase storage losses and threaten smallholder livelihoods. This chapter uses research literature and case studies to examine resilience at farm, community and supply-system levels. It emphasizes location-specific varieties, crop rotation, micro-irrigation, efficient input use, digital forecasting, protected production, improved storage and reliable cold chains. Farmer organizations, extension services, subsidies and supportive institutions are also important. Sustainable onion farming requires agronomic, technological, socioeconomic and policy measures to function together, enabling growers to adapt to climatic uncertainty while conserving resources and maintaining profitability.

The importance of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition is well known. Vegetables are a rich and comparatively cheaper source of minerals and vitamins. Besides, their consumption in sufficient quantities provides taste and palatability, increases appetite and provides a fair amount of fibers. These are currently reckoned as an important adjunct for the maintenance of good health and beneficial in protecting against some degenerative diseases, thus, they form a vital part of human diet. Besides, vegetables now a day are being considered as an asset for providing a good source of income to the growers.

Vegetables originated in different parts of the world, some came from tropical or subtropical countries and others from temperate zones, some from humid areas and others from climates that are more arid. Most of the countries in the world are gifted with varied agro-climatic environments for growing an array of vegetable crops to combat the present imbalanced diet of a vast population of the world, particularly in the developing countries. Production of vegetables in developed countries is much higher, for instance in Japan, nearly 40% of the diet of the people is vegetables. To meet out the full dietary needs of the common man, to eliminate malnutrition, deficiency of minerals and vitamins and also to relieve the stress for increased production of cereals, there is a greater need for growing vegetables on larger scale. As such, for increased production of nearly 247 known vegetable crops, a sound knowledge of the various aspects of vegetable production technology, environmental stresses and constraints, techniques of raising, pre- and post-harvest technology, marketing and seed production techniques is of utmost importance. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past but the inherent agroclimatic requirements of a specific kind of vegetable have not changed materially. Time or season of planting of a particular vegetable crop is determined by its environmental requirement. Knowledge of specific agroclimatic conditions required for a particular crop could enable the grower to select the best season of planting in any particular area (Singh et al., 1991).

Climbers

Climbers are group of plants which have weak stems and ability to climb up the support with the help of modified organs for sunlight and air, twiners differ from climber in the way that they do not posses such modified organs but twine around the support cover it and reach the top. Climber are woody or herbaceous plant which climb up the trees and other tall objects with the help of support of their special modified organ, such as tendrils, root, thorns, rootlets, hooks etc.

Tendrils- Bigonia gracilis, Clematis paniculata etc.

Thorns- Bougainvillea species, Climbing roses etc.

Rootlets- Ficus repens etc.

Hooks- Gallium aperine, Rubus australis etc.

Climbers and twiners are important group of plants. Climbers and twiners add the beuty, colour or fragrance in the garden and artificial structure like garden wall, topiary, arches, pergola etc. are made with the help of climbers.

ABSTRACT

Astudy was conducted to establish the regeneration capacity of pseudobulb segments of a Dendrobium hybrid orchid (D. nobile L. x D. chrysotoxum L.) in vitro on full strength (MS) and half strength (½ MS) Murashige and Skoog medium. Pseudobulb segments having 0.3-0.5 cm length cut from the in vitro maintained hybrid orchid were inoculated on both media supplemented with different concentrations and combinations of NAA, BAP and Kn. On MS medium the pseudobulb segments failed to respond, however, in ½ MS medium the explants responded well. Responding explants were maximum (35%) on the medium ½MS + 0.1 mgl^-1 NAA + 0.5 mgl^-1 BAP. An average of two (2) shoot buds per explant were regenerated on ½ MS + 2.0 mgl^-1Kn and ½ MS + 0.1 mgl^-1 NAA + 1.0 mgl^-1 BAP. The regenerated plantlets grew healthily on subculture after separation from the pseudobulb segments.

Clonal crops belong to at least 34 families including herbs, shrubs, trees and vines. Clonal crop improvement dates back to 10,000 years ago. The diversity of clonal crops and their wild relatives are very significant but not yet fully understood and exploited. Many crops represent combination of sexual and clonal reproduction. Different parts of the clonal crops which may or may not be the same as consumed parts have been shaped as clonal propagules such as stem, setts, tuber, rhizome, corms and bulbs among others.

ABSTRACT

There has been conscious effort to discover and apply biological pesticides for the control of insect predation. Insecticidal proteins/ genes from Bacillus thuringiensis have been deployed as sprays and through transgenic route for crop protection against insect attack and have been successful in protecting the crop damage and environment pollution. However, impending fear of development of resistance to Bt proteins by insects has prompted search for new insecticidal proteins. In this context we are exploring and analysing components of insect immunity as targets for restricting insect feeding behaviour. Insects encounter several microbes during different stages of growth and development. Incidental entry of these microbes elicits a host defense response, which mainly consists of a phenoloxidase (PO) pathway. The invasion of the microbe is recognized by a specific protein, which activates the PO pathway consisting of prophenoloxidase (PPO) & prophenoloxidase activating enzyme (PPAE). Understanding the mechanism of insect immunity will allow us to discover potential targets for inactivating the mechanism of immune action in insects and make them vulnerable to natural microbial infection.

An agronomically important polyphagous pest, Heliothis armigera (Bollworm) was chosen in the present work for studying the components of insect immunity. H. armigera is the most important insect pest of the developing world accounting for heavy damage on various crops including cotton, vegetables, tobacco, potato, groundnut, chickpea and pigeon pea. We have isolated full-length cDNA encoding prophenoloxidase (PPO) and a partial cDNA encoding PPAE from haemocytes of 5th instar larvae of H. armigera. The open reading frame (ORF) of PPO gene is 2.1 kb, which encodes for a 698 amino acid protein with a molecular mass of 77 kDa. Computer-assisted analysis revealed the presence of 60 amino acid long propeptide at the N terminus of protein and 2 copper binding motifs but no signal peptide was detected. The gene was cloned and expressed in a bacterial expression vector pET43b under the induction of IPTG. The SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the protein is expressing in the supernatant in its native form. The expressed enzyme is catalytically active on 4-Methylcatechol upon activation by cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC). The regulatory role played enzyme in insect immunity is being examined.

ABSTRACT

Production of cardamom in India has been greatly affected by Cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV). The conventional breeding program to develop resistance is a lengthy process. An alternative approach is to develop transgenic cardamom through introduction and expression of viral sequences in the plant. The coat protein (CP) gene of all the CdMV isolates have been cloned in pGEMT vector and sequenced. Sequence comparison studies of the eight isolates of CdMV in their CP and 3’UTR showed that, Kursupara isolate is highly variable from the rest of the isolates (Jacob et al., 2003). Hence the present study was undertaken to introduce the Kursupara CP gene of CdMV into cardamom plants in order to develop pathogen-derived resistance in cardamom. The CP gene of the Kursupara isolate of the virus was amplified with and without the 3’untranslated region (3’UTR) from the viral clone. These PCR products were cloned into the pXcmkn12 vector and sub cloned in to a plant expression vector (pAHC17) at the BamHI site, under maize ubiquitin promoter. Work is in progress towards the biolistic transformation of cardamom with these constructs.

ABSTRACT

The cry1A genes of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are widely used to engineer lepidopteran insect resistance in crop plants including horticultural crops. Continuous exposure of a single kind of Bt toxin can lead to resistance development in insect pest. Due to the difference in structure and unique insecticidal mechanism, cry2A genes are promising candidates for management of resistance development. Since India is rich in biodiversity and genetic resources, indigenous Bt strains are valuable tool for identification of novel cry genes. The present study describes the cloning of cry2Ab from a new indigenous strain of Bt, 14RI. The presence of cry2Ab gene in Bt strain 14RI was confirmed by PCR with primers specific to its internal region. Primers corresponding to the flaking region of cry2Ab were used for amplification of cry2Ab orf from the Bt strain 14RI. The amplified cry2Ab orf was first cloned into the T/A cloning vector, and then fused to the downstream of the cry2Aa promoter along with its orf1 and orf2 in the Bt shuttle vector pHT1301. Acrystalliferous Bt strain 4Q7 has been transformed with recombinant pHT1301 to express the cry2Ab of Bt strain 14RI.

ABSTRACT

The present study was conducted to screen fungal isolates for chitinolytic activity and to clone full-length endochitinase gene from fungus. Among the ten isolates tested (Trichoderma harzianum 1, 2, 3, Trichoderma koningii, Trichoderma virens, Trichoderma viride, Aspergillus oryzae Metarshizium verrucasia, Bauveria bassiana, Nomuraea releyi), Trichoderma koningii showed higest colloidal chitin hydrolysis when screened in Mandels and Reese (1969) salts supplemented with colloidal chitin as the sole carbon source followed by Aspergillus oryzae. Nomuraea releyi showed least chitinolytic activity. Other isolates were on par with each other. The use of diagnostic primers showed specific amplification of 260 bp in Trichoderma harzianum isolates 1,2 and3, Trichoderma koningii and Trichoderma virens, which confirmed presence of endochitinase gene.

Attempts were made to clone full-length endochitinase gene from isolates showing chitinolytic activity. A unique amplicon of 1.7Kb from Trichoderma virens was cloned into linear pTZ57R/T vector with T over hangs. The confirmation of clones was made through blue/white colony assay, plasmid mini-preparation and PCR amplification of these plasmids, sequencing and BLAST search at NCBI. Among the clones confirmed, pSAV804 was sequenced that showed 98% homology with other reported endochitinase genes from Trichoderma spp at DNA and protein level. 85.7% of the protein is conserved. The ORF of the sequence comprises of 822 bases, which deduces 274 amino acids. The position of primer sequence in the insert and BLAST results confirmed the reverse orientation in the vector. The endochitinase gene now needs to clone into the expression and plant expression vectors for further studies.

Clove bean is christened so because of the resemblance of its thickened pedicel to the cloves of spice grown in isolated pockets of Kerala. This crop is neglected so long and remained unexploited though it has good potential for development. The tender and swollen pedicel of the fruit is used as a delicious vegetable vernacularly known as michi in Hindi and Bengali, garyo in Gujarati, kattuthali in Tamil, gariya in Marathi and nithya vazhuthana in Malayalam.

This vegetable grows from sea level as in Western Coasts of Kerala to an altitude of 1700 m amol in the Himalayas (Kirthikar and Basu 1935). The crop grows in the Gangetic plains and in Deccan hills. It is distributed in warmer parts of South and South East Asia including Upper Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, China and Japan. (Raizada and Saxena 1978).

Stem-borer: Sahyadrassus malabaricus: Hepialidae

Presence of the pest is understood when chewed tissue is seen at at the col­lar region. The mouth of the tunnel in which the borer feeds show pieces of bark, wood and frass particles held together by silk. The saplings break off at the point of injury. When the main stem is attacked, there is mat-like frass at basal region of stem. Larvae girdle main stem and bores downward killing the tree.

Adult moth is peculiar and hangs vertically down by the support of two pairs of legs. Egg period is for 7-10 days, and larvae live for about 10 months inside the larval tunnels. They pupate for 3-5 weeks.

Botanical description :Botanically, cluster bean is known as Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub. (2n = 2x = 14) belongs to the family Papilionaceae.

Floral biology :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop having about 9 percent maximum natural out crossing. The plants are normally fully fertile, a few semi-sterile ones have also been reported.

Isolation distance :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 50 metres for foundation and 25 metres for certified seed is essential.

Sowing :Cluster bean can be sown twice in a year, February - March in Northern plains and December - January in Southern plains.

Seed rate : In order to sow one hectare area about 30-40 kg seed of cluster bean is required.

Nutrition : The yield of cluster bean has been maximum when the crop was applied with 40 kg nitrogen and 60 kg phosphorus per hectare. The application of micronutrient to cluster bean crop proves very beneficial. Two sprays of molybdenum at 0.15 percent at 15 and 30 days after seedlings emergence give better yield.

Cluster bean [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.] popularly known as guar is a drought hardy, deep-rooted, summer annual legume, grown as feed, fodder, green manure, vegetable and seed in the dry habitats of Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab and to a limited extent in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In addition to its major cultivation in India, the crop is grown as a cash crop in different countries like Australia, Brazil and South Africa. The crop is exceptionally known for its higher adaptation towards poor and erratic rains, low inputs and less care. Its other multi uses are soil enrichment in cropping systems, industrial uses, social and dietary uses. These qualities have made it as the most favoured crop of marginal farmers in the arid areas. Being a leguminous annual, its primary use is soil health enrichment through atmospheric nitrogen fixation; on an average basis it is estimated to be  30 kg N ha-1. The young pods of Cluster bean are a source of delicious vegetable from late summer to middle of rainy season. The pods are sweet and can often be cooked as those of Phaseolus bean pods and are a very good source of vitamin A, calcium, iron, phosphorus and ascorbic acid with enriched nutritional value.

Botany: The Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) belonging to the family Sterculiaceae. Cocoa tree is a shade tolerant, moisture loving, understory rainforest tree. The trees live for up to 100 years, but cultivated trees are considered economically productive for only about 60 years. Naturally Cocao grows to a height of 15 meters, but cultivated trees are trimmed shorter to make harvesting easier. The leaves of Cocoa are smooth bright green, oblong, about 15cm by 8cm. The seeds are encased in a large colourful pod which grows close to tree after a flower. The large pod is green while maturing and turns yellow, orange, red or purple when ripe. They range from about 10 cm to greater than 40 cm in length.

Soil and climate: Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture retentivity with a pH of 6.6-7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at altitudes upto 1200 m above MSL with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24^oC to 25^oC. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens.

Botany: Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belonging to the family Palmae is a slender palm tree widely distributed throughout the tropical regions,with a size that can vary between 12 to 30 meters high. Each inflorescence is a branched flower cluster (panicle), located at the base of the leaves. Its flowers, male and female (monoecious), can be white to pale yellow. Fruiting occurs throughout the year, and the fruit is a drupe with a dry fibrous mesocarp popularly known as coconut.

Coconut fruit has an ovoid shape, constituted by 3 angles and 3 germination holes at the end, with a size between 20 and 30 centimeters in diameter. Coconut fruit consists of a brown fibrous bark and a hard shell, booking a seed inside. The central cavity of the fruit has an aqueous or milky liquid called coconut water that is a nutritional mixture aimed for coconut to grow. When the fruit ripens , this fluid accumulates fat and it is called coconut juice or milk. The seed of the coconut palm is the second largest known , after the coco-de-mer (Lodoicea maldivica ), that can reach 40–50 cm in diameter and weigh from 15 to 30 kg. The seed of coconut is hollow inside and it is covered with a white pulp, oily and edible.

Medicinal uses:It is said to have analgesic, antirheumatic, antibacterial , anticancer, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypotensive and immune stimulating properties. Its oil also has numerous cosmetic applications

Coconut is a traditional plantation crop of India and assumes the status of a high value commercial crop. In India, most of the acreage under coconut palm (90%) lies in the four southern states i.e., Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala ranks first in area (53.76%) and production (45%) followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Coconut is mostly a crop of small farmers in India, the average size of a holding being 0.22 ha. More than 90% of the five million coconut holdings in the country are less than one ha in size. The income derived from such small holdings is not sufficient to sustain even the small families.

1) Bud Rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Severe on young palms.
• Yellowish green discoloration of the heart leaf or crown leaf.
• The basal tissues of the leaf rot quickly and can be easily separated from the crown.
• Spindle withers and droop down.
• Older leaves develop irregular, water soaked spots which are sunken in nature.
• The leaves and sheath in the central spindle fall off leaving an outer whorl of green leaves.
• The withered central shoot can be pulled out very easily from the crown.
• The central crown may rot and in few months the tree may wilt.
• Young nuts fail to mature and fall (Fig.1).

Though the coconut palm is subjected to attack by a number of insect and non insect pests although only 8-10 species of insect pests are considered to be important. Others assume importance, once in a while at isolated locations.

Major pests

The major pests of coconut include the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, black headed caterpillar, root grub and the perianth mite.

Botany: Coffee trees are evergreen shrubs of the rubiaceae family. Coffee of commerce consists of seeds of coffee which when roasted, ground and soaked in hot water yields a fragrant stimulating infusion used for preparing the beverage called Coffee. It is native of America and introduced in India in 1936 near Chickmanglur in Karnataka.

Coffee plants have bright green opposite leaves with smooth margins. Its flowers, white, grow in clusters in the axils of the leaves and are aromatic. From them, fruits are born.They are red drupes with the size of a cherry The outside of the fruit is fleshy and inside it there are two seeds or coffee beans, surrounded by a membranous layer of leathery texture, hence this layer is commonly known as the “parchment”. Some species of trees only produce one seed per fruit are known as “pearl coffee”. In double seed varieties, the two seeds that grow inside each fruit press each other, so they stop the growth in the part which is in contact, so this becomes flat.

Soil and Climate: Coffee arbica comes up well in high altitude from 800 to 1650 meters but -C. canephora Pierre ex A.Froehner adopts well to lower elevations. At high altitude the crop is often late and susceptiable to frost and high winds.Evenly distributed rainfall of 2250 mm is essential. Heavy rainfall is not counducive as it encourages rotting of leaves and plants are easily susceptible to fungal diseases.

1) Rust
Diagnostic Symptoms
• The disease is restricted to leaves although sometimes it can seen on tender shoots and berries.
• The rust pustules appear as small spots, 1-2 mm in diameter.
• In early stages these spots are yellowish becoming orange in color with increase in size.
• On the upper surface, opposite the spots on the lower surface , the color is often brownish.
• In severe attack leaves may dry and wither.
• The berries remain small and fail to ripen.
• Extensive defoliation weakens the trees and results in poor yield, severe die back of twigs, and death of trees (Fig.1).

Coffee is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of insect pests
 
White stem-borer : Xylotrechus quadripes : Cerambycidae

This is one of the important and serious pests of arabica coffee. Other types are also attacked to a slightly lesser extent. The adult is a dark-brown longicorn beetle having several white markings on the elytra and thorax.

Cold chain logistics refers to the technology and processes that ensure the safe transportation of temperature-sensitive goods throughout the supply chain. It is deeply rooted in scientific principles, assessing the relationship between temperature and perishability to maintain product integrity.
Any item categorized as “perishable” typically requires cold chain management. This includes food products such as meat, seafood, and fresh produce, as well as medical supplies and pharmaceuticals.
Although, modern transportation is a relatively recent development, the  practice of moving temperature-sensitive products dates back to the late 1700s when the British used ice to preserve fish. By the late 1800s, ice was widely used to transport perishables. Dairy products were shipped from rural areas to urban markets. Cold chain technology has long been a crucial component of global trade and will continue to play a vital role in the future.
COLD CHAIN LOGISTICS
A cold chain is a specialized supply chain designed for handling perishable and temperature-sensitive goods, commonly referred to as cool cargo. These include fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, and other delicate products. To preserve the quality and integrity of these perishable items, specific lowtemperature conditions must be maintained throughout the supply chain. Certain products require refrigeration; others must be kept frozen, while some demand extreme conditions—often referred to as an ultralow chain or deep freeze. Any failure to maintain the appropriate temperature can result in product spoilage, compromising safety and quality, and ultimately leading to significant financial losses.

The technique of preserving fruit by the use of low temperature dates from the eighteenth century with the first use of ice house in 1750. Later in 1800s commercial cold storages have come up for the storage of perishables like meat, dairy and fruit products.  The main change took place in the cold store in recent years has been the introduction of multi temperature chambers with humidity control for specific products. Cold preservation can be either refrigeration or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at 4-7^ºC. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18^ºC or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

Cabbage

Cabbage is an important crop in USA, Northern European countries, Russia, Japan & Australia and its breeding occurs here, but Holland and Japan are the major breeding countries. It is also being cultivated in India and crop improvement work is taken up in India also.

Origin and General Botany: Historical evidence indicates that modern hard head cabbage cultivars descended from wild non headed Brassica originated in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. The Celts and Late Romans are responsible for spread cabbage throughout Europe. Latin name Brassica derived from Celtic word “bresic” meaning cabbage. Over a period hard headed evolved in Northern Europe and loose headed and heat resistant types evolved in South Europe. Cabbage was first introduced to America in 1541 by French explorer Jacques Cartier (planted seeds in Canada) and earlier colonist introduced the crop in to India also. Round headed types-are evolved earlier than flat (evolved in 17th or 18th century).  Broccoli, Cauliflower, Brussels Sprout, Collards, Kale, and Kohlrabi are all readily intercrossed members of this species.

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) belongs to the family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae having chromosome number 2n=18. ‘Cole wart,’ a wild non-heading variety of Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris, is the ancestor of cabbage. The majority of the 100 species that make up the genus Brassica are indigenous to the Mediterranean region. It is also believed that Germany is where the true-headed cabbage originated. Currently, mostly cabbage is grown in the country like Caribbean, Indonesia, Malaysia, Central Asia, and Western and Eastern America.The third-largest producer of cabbage worldwide is India. The majority of the nation’s states where it is grown include UP, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, WB, MH, and Karnataka. Annually in India, cabbage was produced around in the area of 418 thousand hectares and production of 9.72 million metric tons with the productivity of 22.7MT/hectares (NHB, 2021-22). The other main producers in the globe, in addition to India, are China, Russia, Japan, Korea, the USA, Indonesia, and Ukraine.

Cabbage

Genetic Resources

Historical evidences indicates that modern hard-headed cabbage cultivars are descended from wild non-heading Brassica originating in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. The ancient Greeks held these early forms of cabbage in high regard and believed that they were a gift from the God. The Clelts and, the Romans disseminated cabbage throughout Europe. In fact, the Latin name Brassica is derived from the Celtic word bresi meaning cabbage. Over a period of centuries, hard-headed cabbage types evolved in northern Europe, while loose-heading, heat resistant types developed further in South. Cabbage was first introduced USA when the French explorer Jacques Cartier planted seed in Canada on his voyage in 1541. Cabbage is grown for the thickened main bud called head. The Portuguese introduced cabbage much earlier than cauliflower. There are reports that it was also grown during the Mughal period. In India, much varieties of cabbage are not available. However, genetic resources of cabbage for high yield and resistance to biotic stress are given in Table1.

Improved Varieties of Cole Crops

A. CAULIFLOWER

Cole crops are a group of vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) and include cabbage, cauliflower, knoll khol, kale, Brussel sprouts, sprouting broccoli, etc. Cole crops are found spread all over Europe from the Mediterranean region, which is supposed to be the centre of origin. In the ancient Egyptian and Asian civilization, there was mention of cole crops and also by Aristotle in his writings on ‘Enquiry into plants’ there was mention about three types of coles. It is believed that it was first collected for food at the beginning of Neolithic times before being cultivated, and the cultivated forms of cabbage group like, cabbage, savoy, kales, collard, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and kohlrabi gradually originated from wild species through mutation, human selection and adaptation.

Among the cole crops in India cauliflower and cabbage are the two most important crops while Kohlrabi is grown very less. In India it is cultivated in states of Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. It is also grown in milder climates in southern India like Ooty, Bangalore, etc.

3.1. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.f. alba)

Cabbage, Brassica oleracea Linne (Capitata Group) is a popular vegetable belonging to the family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae) and is used as a leafy green vegetable. It is in the same genus as the turnip – Brassica rapa. Cabbage leaves often have a delicate, powdery, waxy coating called bloom. The occasionally sharp or bitter taste of cabbage is due to glucosinolate(s). Cabbages are also a good source of riboflavin.

In India cabbage is widely grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Cultivars/Varieties: Cabbage cultivars are classified on the basis of colour of head and maturity. In India white cabbage is important and these are available in pointed, round and flat shapes. Of these round cabbages are preferred. Common cabbage varieties grown are Golden Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market, Red Acre, Pusa Drum Head, Pride of India, Pusa Agethi, Pusa Muktha, KGMR-1, Kateri, Hardam and Nakshatra.

Vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) are known as Cole crops. These are the most widely grown vegetables in temperate and sub-tropical zones. The word ‘Cole’ comes from abbreviation of word ‘caulis’ meaning stem. Cole crops are a group of highly differentiated plants originated from a wild plant Brassica oleracea var. oleracea (=B. sylvestris L.) commonly known as “Wild cliff cabbage” or “colewort”, through mutation, human selection or adaptation. Cole crops include cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, Brussels sprouts, Chinese cabbage, sprouting broccoli, kale etc. of which cabbage and cauliflower are the most popular and widely grown.

Mediterranean region is the centre of origin of Cole crops. From there, it spread to Europe and other temperate and sub-tropical regions. Cabbage, knol khol and curly kale were the first known cultivated types. Cauliflower became widely known in the 18^th century and Brussels sprouts in 19^th century. In the thirties of 20^th century, sprouting broccoli started cultivation particularly in the USA.

Linnaeus in 1753 included all forms of Cole crops in one species, Brassica oleracea. Later the works of many, including Neuwhof (1969) resulted in putting them into different forms as given below:

B. oleracea var. capitata L. - Cabbage

Cole crops refers to vegetable crops originated from a common ancestor, colewort or wild cliff cabbage (B. oleraceae var oleraceae or Brassica sylvestris L.) and they belong to family Brassicaceae. They prefer low temperature for growth and development hence mainly grown as temperate vegetables in temperate and subtropical climatic zones. This group of vegetable includes cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, brussels sprout, sprouting broccoli, kale, Chinese cabbage etc. They are Mediterranean vegetables since its centre of origin is considered to be Mediterranean region. Later on, it spread into different parts of the temperate and subtropical countries. In India, cultivation of cole crops was started in the hills where temperate climate prevails and in states like Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka as cool season crop. But with the introduction of tropical types which are more tolerant to high temperature cultivation, cole crops are taking new pace in the cropping system of nontraditional areas. Cabbage and cauliflower became the most widely grown cole crops though cabbage, knol khol and curly kale were the first cultivated types and cauliflower came in the mid-way followed by brussels sprout and sprouting broccoli. The genetic designation of different vegetables under cole crops were described by several workers of which Linnaeus (1753) designated all the cole crops under one species, Brassica oleraceae and in 1969, Neuwhof classified them into different forms as B oleracea var capitata L. (cabbage); B oleracea var botrytis L. (cauliflower); B oleracea var gemmifera DC. (Brussels sprout); B oleracea var italica L. (sprouting broccoli); B oleracea var gongyloides L. (knol khol) and B oleracea var acephala DC. (kale).

Cole crops are usually biennial herbs with tap root system and erect stem. They are highly cross-pollinated and temperature sensitive for the production of head and curd. They are classified as early, mid and late varieties based on the temperature requirement and duration. Among this, early varieties are found to be high temperature tolerant and late varieties are low temperature tolerant. The flowering in cole crops requires a chilling temperature of 4-70C for about 6 8 weeks which transforms the juvenile phase into reproductive stage with exceptions of some early varieties of cauliflower and sprouting broccoli. Upon receiving the chilling temperature, the central stalk will develop into reproductive shoot or multiple reproductive shoots will be formed from the curd. The earlier is seen in cabbage, brussels sprout and kale whereas, the latter in cauliflower and sprouting broccoli. The seed production of cole crops belonging to temperate groups are mostly undertaken in temperate hills especially in the hills of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh whereas, seeds of tropical types are produced in plains and lower hills of India.

Coleus, commonly known as Chinese potato, is a minor tuber crop of the tropical regions of India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Africa. It is considered as a native of India , where its cultivation is mostly confined to the southern states. In Kerala, it is commonly known as koorka or cheevakizhangu. In Malaysia it is called ubi kemili, kentang kechil, kembili and kumbili java. It is also known as hausa potato, Sudan-potato, country potato, fra-fra potato, fra-fra-salanga, ratala, pomme de terre du Soudan, hausakartoffel, innala, saluga, tumuku and fabirama. 

Nutritive status
The nutritive status of this crop compares favourably with many of the major tuber crops.  Coleus tuber, with its characteristic  flavour has a special preference among consumers. Compared to other tuber crops, it fetches premium price in the market, although it is known as poor man’s potato. The tubers are used for the preparation of various delicious side dishes. Reliable data on area and production of this crop are not available. Despite the high market price and consumer preference, it is not available throughout the year.

Lace wing bug: Monantha globulifera : Tingidae

Eggs are inserted slantingly into leaves and other tender foliage.  Black spiny nymphs and lace winged adults suck the sap from leaves. Attacked leaves develop yellow patches become brown, shrivel and dry up in severe cases.

Leaf feeder : Helicoverpa armigera : Noctuidae

The female moth lays eggs on tender foliage. Young larva feeds on tender foliage and starts infesting the older ones in later instars. A single caterpillar can destroy many leaves

Varieties: No named variety

Soil: Red sandy soil and sandy loam soil are highly suitable. Soil drainage is essential and hard pan and water logged soils should be avoided.

Climate: Suitable for plain and lower hills. Requires 70 cm annual rain fall

Propagation: Terminal three to four nodal cuttings measuring 10 cm length is used

Land Preparation: Apply 15 t FYM/ha. Ridges are formed at a spacing of 60 cm. Cuttings have to be planted at a spacing of 45 cm.

Nutrient management: Nutrients Quantity (kg / ha) N 30 P 60 K 50 The above nutrients can be applied in two split doses viz., 30 and 45 days after planting. In micronutrient deficient soils, ZnSO4 can be applied as basal fertilizer.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Grafting and budding are horticultural techniques used to join parts from two or more plants so that they appear to grow as a single plant. In grafting, the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the root system (rootstock) of another plant. In the budding process, a bud is taken from one plant and grown on another. The practice of grafting can be traced back 4,000 years to ancient China and Mesopotamia. As early as 2,000 years ago, people recognized the incompatibility problems that may occur when grafting olives and other fruiting trees.

7.2 ROOT STOCK

The part of the graft that provides root system to the grafted plant is known as rootstock. It is, normally, raised by seeds in the seedbed and then, transplanted in the nursery bed for budding and grafting. Rootstocks are also raised in pots and polythene bags.

PLANT EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

Plant exploration and collection activities have been undertaken for a wide range of needs - by naturalists, travelers and plant hunters over the past several centuries in the quest for new and better economic plants in the southeast Asian region, ornamentals in the Himalayas and many others; by taxonomists for working out plant diversity and delineating phyto- geographic differences, and providing a basis for pinpointing areas with high species diversity and changes over time; world-wide collection, augmentation and characterization of crop plant diversity by Vavilov and co-workers (1926) for understanding the patterns of crop plant diversity and delineating centres of diversity; search for wild forms of species, and wild relatives of crop plants for working out primary centres of origin and crop genepools; biosystematic study, survey and in situ study and collection in protected areas for determining patterns of diversity build-up in crop and wild species. Concept of centres of origin of crop plants, importance of the wild genepool of crops, dependence on wild plants as a source of edible and otherwise useful species ensuing from these efforts provide the basis for systematic exploration and collection of plant genetic resources.

Introduction

Plant genetic resources represent a huge reservoir of genes of economic importance, which acts as buffer against environment fluctuations. These genes are largely spread in the land races and traditional cultivars, which have been conserved by virtue of their specific merits. The human and natural selection interventions have resulted in establishment, improvement and differentiation of numerous types, which represent genetic wealth of the crop species and are commonly referred as plant genetic resources (PGR).

Genetic Erosion and Need for Conservation

In view of the availability of high yielding varieties/hybrids, the traditional cultivars/ land races have been disregarded by the farmers due to their low economic potential. Sustaining the green revolution, changing cultivation practices and intensification of land use pattern have been the potential threats for rapid erosion of plant genetic diversity. The erosion of these resources has resulted into the extinction of several valuable genetic materials. Realizing the consequences of genetic erosion and importance of plant genetic resources, more diversity needs to be conserved for future. Prior to conservation the collection and characterization of germplasm through morphological and molecular markers for establishing the identity of genotype is essentially required. For effective utilization of PGR in vegetable improvement programme, the proper characterization and evaluation of genotypes for breeder driven traits including biotic and abiotic stresses in target environments is urgently needed. In addition, value addition is an important area of concern especially in vegetable crops. After implementation of recommendations of Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the major thrust has been given on conservation of bio-resources. In view of the globalization and emerging IPR regimes (UPOV, TRIPS, ITPGFRA etc.), there is a need for having suitable mechanisms for the protection of bio-resources.