eChapters

1. DEFINITION

Seed village definition is to see that the aim right from the start is to make a holistic transformation in the village. Seed village concept is a “Win-Win model”, says Deepak Mullick, one of India’s foremost professionals in agribusiness. It is also known as “Compact area approach”. Seed village area should be suitable for crop or varieties. Seed in compact area, whole village should be involved. The whole farmers in the village cultivate same crop, same variety and follow same cultivation practices.

INTRODUCTION

High crop productivity depends on quality of seed as without good quality seed even if we apply manure, Plant protection measure and other cultural practices it is not possible to produce good quality seed. So the basic seed used for sowing must be healthy and good in quality. It is different from commercial production as it need proper care, good quality basic seed, timely cultural operations, thinning, roguing, timely application of pesticides and fertilizers and maintenance of seed quality through inspections. 
Seed production requires technical skill to achieve all the above advantages for which the best approaches Compact Area Approach or Seed Village Concept.
It is selection of compact area by organizing the seed farmers in the selected area. The selected area must be fertile and suitable for reproduction of good quality seed such areas can be organized for self and cross pollinated crops (Groundnut, Paddy, Pulses, Sorghum) especially for the varietal seed production. But the variety should be one another for whole of the selected area.

Advantages of Seed Village Concepts

1. Isolation and Roguing

For maintenance of genetic purity of the crop it requires isolation and proper rouging. This can be achieved in the compact area programme, as it will be the mutual benefit to the farmers who are concentrating growing on single variety on compact area.

Technically, seed is the sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). A true seed consist of an embryonic plant, a store of food which consists of cotyledons and endosperm and a protective seed coat. Seed can also be considered as any material that is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Rather than seed, propagating materials like healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, setts, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose is also referred to as seed. Thus, seeds are of two types namely sexual or botanical seed and asexual seed. Both can be used for raising the crops thus forms the agricultural seeds.

Based on the moisture content present, seeds are of two types, orthodox seeds and recalcitrant seeds. Orthodox seeds are the botanical seeds which contain moisture content less than 20%. Such seeds do not germinate even if the moisture content is more than 20% unless artificially forced to germinate. Recalcitrant seeds contain moisture content more than 20% and such seeds will not germinate if moisture content is less than 20%. These seeds cannot be stored for long and for long storage, special structures or conditions are required. Mostly perennial plant species produce this type of seeds.

Seedling:A seedling is a very young plant that grows from a seed. When the moisture, light, and temperature conditions are correct, the seedling’s development begins with seed germination and the formation of three main parts:

1.Radicle - Embryonic root

2.Hypocotyl - Embryonic shoot

3.Cotyledons - Seed leaves.

In vegetables and annual ornamental crops where generally seed size is small they are germinated in nursery beds or in plug trays indoor (greenhouse) or outdoor(field), hardened before transplanting.

Sapling: A sapling is a young tree, say more than 1 year and less than 3 years’ old. In the life cycle of trees, a seedling converts into a sapling as the next stage of development. It is nearly one-meter tall and generally remains to be known as a sampling until its stem reaches 7 centimetre in diameter. The time period of this stage depends upon the particular species of a tree. In vegetable and annual ornamental crops seedlings generally are one month to 40 days old. Older than this, seedlings do not give better yields on transplanting. Very young seedlings exhibit larger mortality on transplanting.

Transplanting: Transplanting or replanting is the technique of moving a plant by uplifting from one location to another. From nursery beds seedlings or saplings are shifted and planted either in the field or greenhouses for commercial growing. Seedlings are uprooted if grown in soil medium. They are transplanted with growing medium. Uprooted seedlings take time to establish at a new place and face transplanting shock- time taken by roots to establish contact with the soil or growing medium.

It is said that “Success of any production system depends on the kind of seed which are sowing”. It is true for the seedlings also beacause healthy seedlings grown in a well managed nursery will decide the yield and consequently the profit.

Definition of Vegetable Nursery

A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling of young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more permanent planting.

Why vegetable nursery is needed

Some vegetable crops require special cares during their early growth period. There are some vegetables with very small sized seeds. Seedlings of many seed propagated vegetable crops like, tomato, brinjal, chillies, sweet pepper, cauliflower, cabbage, knolkhol, broccoli, Brussels sprout, kale, endive, chicory, celery, lettuce, parsley, onion, etc. are first raised in the nursery beds before transplanted in the main field. Many seed propagated vegetable crops viz., okra, peas, beans, radish, carrot, beet, turnip and all the cucurbits (e.g. bitter gourd, bottle gourd, pumpkin, cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, snake gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, etc.) are conventionally grown through direct seeding in the main field. However, many cucurbits, particularly in the early season are also grown in India using the seedlings raised in polythene packets.

21.1 Introduction

There are a number of field, vegetable, fruit and ornamental crops that are cultivated using asexual or vegetative parts such as stems, roots, modified flower etc. This is a heterogeneous group of plants and can be further categorized into four groups for ease in understanding the breeding methods applied to them. They are:

Group 1: Flowerless or Sterile

This group either does not bear flowers or if bears, they are sterile and do not set seed, e.g., ginger, mango ginger, turmeric, garlic, betel, many yams, etc.

Group 2: Apomicts

Apomixis has been reported in over 300 genera. But stable apomixis has been reported only in a few cultivated plants like meadow grass, citrus, mango, raspberry, etc.

Group 3: Flowers but Seed-Set Rare

In this group flowering takes place under specific situations but seed-set is limited, e.g., potato, sweet potato, sugarcane, etc.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The ultimate success of an orchard enterprise largely depends upon the quality and genuineness of planting materials as nursery plants are the foundation of the orchard. Fruit crops, mostly being perennial in nature, call for utmost care in selection of cultivar, quality planting material and adoption of right technology for mass multiplication of planting material. Mistakes committed during the initial establishment of orchards cannot be corrected and will cause serious damage to production and productivity. The variation of scion-wood and rootstock has great bearing on the productivity of an orchard. Thus, it is of immense importance having all plants carefully labelled or otherwise marked. Cuttings taken from the mother plant will grow to have the same genetic qualities as the original plant. This is why the plants resulting from these cuttings are called “clones”. When a stem cutting is taken from a mother plant, the piece of stem will produce new roots if it is properly hydrated. Additionally, some plants can be grown from leaf pieces, or leaf cuttings and these will produce both stems and roots.

Thus, the progeny trees are the basic component for the multiplication of fruit plants and ultimately deciding the quality and productivity of the fruit crops. Hence, it is necessary to stock the true to type and best quality progeny trees.

In asexual methods of plant propagation, plant parts are being used as propagating materials. The plant from which the plant parts are collected is known as mother plant. There is every possibility of transmission of disease or pest which is present in the mother plant to the progeny. The mother plants have to be maintained properly to obtain disease free planting materials so that multiplication of disease/pest can be prevented. Thus, there is a need for the establishment of mother plant block/scion banks.

12.1 Introduction

Allowing certain plants from the population to reproduce, while barring others, comprises selection. This permission for reproduction may be granted by nature or by the plant breeder. In the other words, both nature and breeder exert selection pressure. Natural selection operates through differences of fertility among the adult individuals of parent generation as well as through differences of viability among the individuals of offspring generation. Artificial selection, i.e., the selection from action of the plant breeder in the choice of parents, produces its change of gene frequency by separating the adult individuals of parent generation into two groups, viz., the selected and the discarded, that differ in gene frequency. So, selection simply implies the retaining of desirable types or culling of unwanted or undesirable types.

Choosing the appropriate construction materials requires evaluating their properties, cost, availability, and how well they suit the particular project. Common materials include concrete, steel, bricks, wood, stone, glass, and various plastics. Key specifications often considered are strength, durability, fire resistance, and environmental impact.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR TRADITIONAL GREENHOUSE
Traditional greenhouses are built using a variety of materials that ensure durability, insulation, and protection for plants, while also allowing sunlight to penetrate. The selection of materials depends on factors such as cost, climate, and the greenhouse’s intended purpose. Here are some of the common materials used in constructing traditional greenhouses:
1. Wood: Wood has been a traditional and widely used material in greenhouse construction due to its affordability and ease of use. Treated wood, such as cedar or redwood, is commonly chosen for its resistance to decay and insects. Wood offers good insulation and stability, making it suitable for different climates.
2. Galvanized Steel: Steel frames provide exceptional structural support and are known for their strength and durability. Galvanized steel is coated to prevent rust and corrosion, extending its lifespan. Steel frames are capable of withstanding heavy loads and harsh weather conditions.
3. Aluminum: Aluminum frames are lightweight and resistant to corrosion, making them a favored choice for greenhouse construction. They are easy to assemble and require little maintenance over time.
4. PVC Pipes: PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipes are cost-effective and simple to work with, making them ideal for smaller or temporary greenhouses. They provide a basic, lightweight framework that is easy to assemble.

The selection of the site has great importance for the establishment of a fruit orchard successfully. Establishment of orchard is a long term activity with huge investment. Hence, any mistake committed during site selection, it is difficult to rectify it later. Successful orchard is not only related with yield but also its economic production and efficient disposal of produce. For economic orchard establishment; some of the points which need to be considered, while selection of site. These are as follows.

1. Climate and soil: These are two important natural factors, which decide the success or failure of orchards. Before selection of site, climate and soil requirement for selected fruit crops needs to be studied thoroughly and accordingly site must be selected. On the other hand if a site has already been selected; then fruit crop selection needs to be done as per the existing climate and soil of that selected site.
2. Topography: Slope of site more than 15% makes the land almost unsuitable for cultivation. Land with 4% slope may be kept clean without much loss. Uneven land involves heavy expenditure in leveling. Southern slopes are generally warmer and affect the plant growth in a manner different from the northern slopes. It is due to the difference in quantum of receiving sunlight. Hence, the site with southern slopes may be selected for sun loving plants.

ABSTRACT

Apot culture experiment was conducted on tomato with cadmium and lead to identify the selective retention sites of the metals. For this a completely randomized design with five treatments and four replications were laid out at the College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara. The different levels of treatment ranged from 0.5 to 2.0 mg kg -1 soil. Cadmium and lead were directly supplied as a water-soluble source through cadmium chloride and lead nitrate respectively. In tomato the growth and fruiting was permitted only at lower levels of cadmium application. At 1.5 mg kg-1 soil, fruiting failed. While at 2.0 mg kg-1 soil, the very establishment of plant was totally affected. At higher levels of application, cadmium preferred to get accumulated in roots while on the contrary at lower levels, cadmium uptake increased in shoots than in roots with the least content of the metal in fruits. However, in the case of lead, all levels of application in soil permitted growth and fruiting. With increase in rate of lead application, significant selective retention was observed in roots (1.48-6.69 ppm), shoot (0.29-1.62 ppm) and fruits (0.39-1.45 ppm). On comparison of retention sites of lead in tomato, it could be seen that fruits maintained the maximum lead uptake (637.2-2933.0 mg pot-1). Hence, the consumption of such tomato fruits contaminated with heavy metals may result in kidney damage, lack of memory, dissolution of phosphorus in the bones etc.

To start with let the self-incompatibility be defined.

• Self-incompatibility is the mechanism by which plant can prevent selffertilization.
• Self-incompatibility is defined as inability of a plant producing functional gamete to achieve self-fertilization.
• Self-incompatibility is a genetically based mechanism which controls mating within angiosperm species by imposing a ‘barrier’ between pollination and fertilization.
• The term incompatibility is used to describe the failure of pollen tube to penetrate the full length of the style and to effect fertilization.

Senna (Cassia angustifolia Vahl.) popularly called as ‘Sonamukhi’ is widely used medicinal herb in Ayurveda, Unani and also in Allopathic system of medicine. It is well known for its purgative activity (Bentley and Trimen, 1999). The plant is known by various names in common conversation likes Sennai, Sona, Sonamukhi, Sennamukki, Sonpar, etc.  Presently, there is a growing demand of senna  dry leaves and processed products in the national as well as in international markets. In recent years, its cultivation has gained momentum in arid and semi- arid parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat due to its diversified adaptability. It has also been widely adopted by the farmers because of its low cost of cultivation with yield stability. Its main characteristics viz., drought hardy, perenniality, non-palatability to animals has also attracted the farmers for its popularity. Moreover, the senna crop is eco-friendly as it can be utilized for wasteland, sand dune stabilization and desert development (Bohra and Sankhla, 1997; Tripathi, 1999).

Botany: Senna, Cassia angustifola belonging to the family Leguminosae is a perennial 1-2 m height undershrub. The stem is erect, smooth, and pale green to light brown with long spreading ascending branches. Leaves are compound with four to eight pairs of leaflets. The full grown leaflets are bluish-green to palegreen in colour and emit a characteristic fetid smell when crushed. The flowers are small and yellow and axillary arranged racemes. The pods are broadly oblong about 5-8 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, green in beginning and change to greenish-brown to dark brown on maturity. Each pod has 5 to 7 ovate, compressed, smooth, dark-brown seeds.

Varieties : KKM - 1, Anand Late Selection, ALFT-2 and Sona

Soil and climate: In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in sandy or sandy loam or laterite soils. It is a hardy warm weather crop grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Senna is also cultivated successfully on black cotton soils. It has a great tolerance to high soil salinity, however, shedding of some lower leaves often occurs. The soil pH suited for cultivation is 7.0-8.5. But, the most suitable to sandy loam to loam soils which are more friable and well drained.

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Sensory evaluation is one of the important methods of evaluation of the quality of food. Without the sensory evaluation of a product whether it is fresh or processed, it cannot be launched in the market. All the other methods like physical, chemical and microbiological fails for the product development if sensory evaluation is ignored as the final acceptance can come from the sensory evaluation only. So sensory evaluation has got an upper edge as compared to the other methods of food quality evaluation. However, a collective approach of quality evaluation of a product that includes the physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory evaluation is the most acceptable approach today.

In the past, human sensory perception had been the only mean of assessment of product quality as illustrated by the classical examples of cooks who knew how to mask the off-notes long before the microbial assessment of quality came into existence. Everybody relied on the sensory evaluation of food as a criterion of quality assessment. In the past, even the kings depended upon “tasters” to assure that the food was suitable for their consumption in the past. The role of sensory organs in sensory evaluation of food is shown in Table 1. But later on, with the development of instrumentation, sensory analysis was overlooked and the instrumental methods were preferred as they were supposed to provide absolute measures of quality. Consequently, the product quality was traditionally determined by physical, chemical and microbiological criteria with the assumption that the products meeting the prescribed specifications in the above parameters would automatically meet the desired sensory quality. However, soon it was realized that without sensory evaluation, the acceptability of a product cannot be determined.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The method of propagation in plants may be sexual or asexual. In sexual method of propagation, specialized reproductive cells called gametes are formed by the process of gametogenesis. Fusion of the male and female gametes leads to the development of an embryo and eventually the seed.

4.2 GAMETOGENESIS

The production of male and female gametes is known as gametogenesis. It occurs within microspores and megaspores. It involves only mitosis. It is of two types: (1) microgametogenesis and (2) megagametogenesis.

Sexual propagation through seeds is a fundamental method for producing horticultural crops, rootstocks, and planting material. This chapter explains seed structure, quality, viability, dormancy, germination, and factors affecting successful seedling establishment. Different types of seed dormancy and methods for overcoming dormancy are discussed, including scarification, stratification, chemical treatments, temperature management, and appropriate moisture conditions. Seed testing and quality considerations are important for obtaining uniform and healthy plants. The chapter also emphasizes the influence of temperature, oxygen, water, light, and substrate conditions on germination. Understanding seed biology enables students and growers to produce vigorous seedlings and establish reliable nursery and crop-production systems.

7.1 Introduction

The practice of greenhouse management has become a crucial method for extending growing seasons, improving crop quality, and maximizing yield potential in modern agriculture. Shedding and ventilation are critical elements that determine the effectiveness of greenhouse operations. They are pivotal in creating a delicate ecology where plants can find shelter in a controlled environment that protects them from the elements while enabling exact changes to temperature, humidity, and light.

ABSTRACT

Cycas is the largest genus among cycads - the surviving remnants of an ancient line of plants of the early Mesozoic period. The IUCN has classified more than half of the 182 species of Cycadales as endangered, vulnerable or rare. The use of in vitro techniques could permit a way to conserve many of the endangered species. None of the in vitro studies has been successful in establishing a functional protocol for artificial propagation of cycads. The objective of the present investigation is to explore the possibilities of in vitro plant regeneration from megagametophyte explants of Cycas circinalis - the only species of Cycas grown in Kerala. Megagametophyte from the ovules of ten-year-old Cycas circinalis plant was used as explant. Standard tissue culture techniques were adopted for the in vitro culturing of the explant. The basal medium involved major salts of B5 and minor salts of MS media. Glutamine, casein hydrolysate, coconut water and megagametophyte extract were used as supplements. The plant growth regulators - Kn, BAP, 2iP, IAA, NAA and 2,4- D - were incorporated alone and in combinations. Highest percentage of shoot induction and highest average number of shoot buds per culture were observed in PGR combination involving Kn + BAP along with one of the auxins (2,4-D or NAA or IAA). Shoot buds developed did not show further growth even after one year. The protocol employed in the present investigation may lead to multiple shoot proliferation and help in large-scale propagation of Cycas circinalis.

Shrubbery-An area of cultivated shrubs in a parkor garden is known asshrubbery or any area in the garden fully solely devoted to the shrub plantation is called shrubbery. These shrubs are maintained in formal way therefore require regular training, pruning and clipping. Maintenance of shrubbery is easy and become less costly if planted properly considering following point (See plate 22).

• Selection of hardy shrubs.
• Shrubs having profuse flowering and beautiful foliage.
• Selection of shrub according to soil.
• Shrub having slow growing habit and required less pruning and management.