eChapters

Squash: It is a type of fruit beverage containing at list 25% fruit juice or pulp and 40-50% TSS commercially. It’s also containing about 1% citric acid and 350ppm sulphurdioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. Generally it is diluted before serving. Mango, orange, pineapple, lemon, lime, guava, litchi etc are commercially used for squash making using KMS as preservative. The coloured fruit like jamun, passion fruit, peach, phalasa, plum, mulberry, strawberry and grapefruits are also used for making squash but due to bleaching effect KMS is not used as preservative. In such types of fruits sodium benzoate used as preservative.

Squashes and Pumpkin (Cucurbita, spp, 2n = 2x = 40) are the words quite often used interchangeably. However, the term squash is more commonly used for C. pepo which is consumed as an immature fruit. The term pumpkin is normally applied to the edible fruit of any species of Cucurbita utilized when ripe as a table vegetable or in pies.
 
Origin:  The genus Cucurbita is native to America.  The center of diversity is the tropics near the Mexico- Gauatamla border. The archaeology evidences indicate that these were widely cultivated in South Western United States, Mexico, and northern South America in Pre-Colombian times i.e. prior to 1492 A.D.

C. pepo : Summer squash : Some varieties belong to winter squash, pumpkin and marrows. It has bushy habit, peduncle hard, sharply angular, grooved, leaves broad, triangular in outline, usually with deep lobes little or no expansion of peduncle at fruit attachment. In North America it is commonly found.

C. mixta : Squash, cymlins, cushaws: It is used as summer and winter squash, leaves shallowly lobed, hard corky peduncle. This is also commonly found in North America.

Abstract

Old walnut seedlings in the age of up to twenty years were top worked using chip budding technique. In the seedling plants up to ten years of age, budding was done on older branches. But in the seedlings between 10-20 years of age, main branches were first dehorned during winters and the budding was performed on newly emerged branches in the month of May and June. Best results in the seedlings up to 10 years of age was obtained when budding was done in the second week of June with 89 and 97 per cent success in the year 2002 and 2003, respectively. The lowest success, however, was recorded in the plants between 10-20 years of age when budding was performed in the third week of May. Budding success in the plants between 10-20 years of age was slightly lower but they grew very fast as compared to those below ten years of age. Therefore, chip budding can be successfully utilized for the top working of old walnut seeding plants during second week of June when the buds become fully developed. For other areas this date may be different depending upon the maturity of the buds.

ABSTRACT

The present investigation was undertaken to standardize the DNA extraction methods, to optimize the PCR conditions and generate RAPD’s to study the genetic variability in chrysanthemum. Total genomic DNA was extracted from freshly emerged leaves of chrysanthemum cultivars (Flirt, Nagpur Red, Snow Ball) using different DNA extraction methods (CTAB method, SDS potassium acetate method, SDS miniprep method and urea phenol method). The highest amount of DNA (349μg/g of leaves) was extracted using CTAB method, while it was lowest (130 μg/g of leaves) in SDS miniprep method. The absorbance ratio was high for DNA extracted by CTAB method (1.82) followed by SDS- potassium acetate (1.65) and SDS miniprep (1.60) methods. For standardization of PCR ampl ification conditions, optimization was carried out to determine the optimal concentrations of template DNA, MgCl₂, Taq DNA polymerase and annealing temperature. In general, either no products or products with inconsistent bands were obtained when the concentration of template DNA was 25 ng or MgCl₂ was 1.0 mM with high annealing temperature of 45°C.

Abstract

Cut flowers of rose cv. ‘First Red’, with uniform stem length of 45 cm, harvested during different times of the year i.e. March, May and October, were used for standardization of holding solutions to increase the vase life. Harvest-wise pooled averages of two years data (2003-04) revealed that the cut flowers of March and May harvests gave increased flower diameter, more volume of solution consumed, maximum vase-life, reducing sugar and protein content with minimum weight loss when these were held in a solution containing 100 ppm 8-HQC (8-hydroxy quinoline citrate) +1.5 per cent sucrose. For getting similar results of October harvested flowers lower concentration of 8-HQC (50 ppm) with same level of sucrose was found most suitable

ABSTRACT

Asuccessful micro grafting technique in Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) was developed using in vitro germinated seedling as root stock and shoots from stage II cultures as scions. Grafting success was dependent on the method of grafting, size of the scion and age of the root stock. Among the methods tried, side and cleft grafting were found to be suitable. Due to the ease of operation and faster union, side grafting was preferred. High levels of graft union were obtained when 2 - 3 cm long shoots from stage II cultures were grafted on to 8 - 9 days old in vitro raised root stocks in full strength MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium supplemented with Kinetin (2.5 mg l^-1), NAA (0.5 mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The very high growth of grafted scion was obtained, when the micro grafts were transferred into MS medium containing full strength macroelements supplemented with Kinetin (5mg l^-1), NAA (1mg l^-1) and Brassinolide (1mg l^-1). The micro grafts after a process of hardening could be successfully transplanted into soil. Micro grafting techniques standardized could be used for rejuvenation of shoot explants of mature tree.

Seed size is an important parameter of seed vigor as it in influences the performance of seed in soil. Seed bulk at harvest contains a wide range of seed sizes but these may not all be of equal value for sowing. Farmers have always realized the necessary of using uniform seeds for good viability to obtain high emergence and growth. This will also help in getting optimum plant population and higher yields.
 
The influence of seed size on seedling vigor and crop productivity has already been proven since the days Hannaford who was considered as father of seed processing. To achieve uniformity in seed size this optimum sieve/screen size is very critical for optimum seed recovery and economical seed yield. Though the screen sizes are standardized for different crops but vary with different varieties. The shop floor should continuously explore and fine tune screen sizes for different varieties.

Star gooseberry also known as Otaheite gooseberry   (Phyllanthus acidus Skeels) is an important underexploited fruit of family Euphorbiaceae. Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg., Phyllanthus acidissimus (Blanco) Muell. Arg., Cicca acida Merr., Cicca disticha L. are the synonyms of star gooseberry. Food value of star gooseberry / 100g of edible portion is given below.

Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants which is abundantly found in roots, tubers, stems, fruits, and cereals. It is a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers with a chemical formula of (C6H10O5)n. Starch is composed ofamylose and amylopectin. The linear polymer amylose is the most basic form of starch while amylopectin is the branched form. Foods that are high in starch content are a good source of nutrition. Food starches are used in the food industry as thickeners and stabilizers. During the ripening of fruits, the starch is converted into sugars. Therefore, the presence of starch in fruits is used as an indication of maturity and ripening.
Principle: For estimation of starch contents, the sugars present in the sample are leached out and starch is hydrolyzed using either acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. Stach is then calculated as invert sugars.
Starch content by Acid Hydrolysis method
Reagents: Ethanol 95%, /50%,Concentrated HCl, Concentrated H2SO4, 1N NaOH solution, Phenolphthalein indicator, 10% alcoholic solution of Alphanaphthol.

3.1. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The Σ of probability will be
   1. 1.0
   2. 2.0
   3. 3.0
   4. 0.5
2. Frequency distribution can be converted in probability by calculating -------------------------------------- ?? each class which can be consider the probability of that class
   1. Individual frequency
   2. Relative frequency
   3. Both relative and individual frequency
   4. None of the above
3. In binomial distribution, mean is always greater than ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ??.
   1. Median
   2. Mode
   3. Variance
   4. All of the above

Introduction

Horticulture is the science of cultivation, management, postharvest handling, value addition and marketing of fruits, vegetables, ornamental, aromatic and medicinal plants, spices and plantation crops. Looking to its important role in nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation, it has rightly been emerged in form of horticulture industry and as one of the most significant sectors in the world. The production of fruits, vegetables and flowers has acquired much importance in recent times due to their increasing demand. Changing lifestyles of people across the globe, attempts to overcome the stressful lifestyle, inclination towards healthy and balanced eating habits have made people include fruits and vegetables in their daily diet. In the case of flowers, the demand for fresh flowers has steadily increased not only for decoration but also for many other purposes like essential oils, cosmetics, aroma therapy, dry flowers, pot-pourries, natural dyes, medicines, etc. Rising incomes and growing consumer interest in a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables year-round is stimulating international trade in horticulture.

In irrigated agriculture, water is the most important and precious input among all the inputs required for the biological activities of the plant. It is also a key input not only for ensuring food security but also for sustainable socio economic development. Water plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural production and provides food security. On a global scale, 97.5% of water resources are salty ocean water, with only only 2.5% being fresh water. The bulk of the latter occurs in the polar ice and glaciers, as well as deep aquifers, some in water bodies like rivers and lakes, and in soil moisture. On the whole, less than 1% of the world’s fresh water resources are available for human use. The world’s average annual precipitation of about 1100 mm, marked by wide variation in water availability, is creating a great divide in regions, resulting in plenty of regimes and scare/acute shortage regions.

In India, the average annual precipitation, including snowfall, is 4000 billion cubic meter (bcm), of which water availability in the river systems is estimated at 1869 bcm, and out of which only 1122 bcm can be used. About 690 bcm is surface water and 432 bcm is ground water. As compared to the world’s average annual rainfall of 1100 mm, India receives 1170 mm, which is highly erratic and uncertain in both time and space. Thus, in India, very limited fresh water is available for use because of competitive and conflicting demand from the agriculture, industry, power, and domestic sectors, which is expected to increase from 10.7% in 1990 to 22.5% in 2025. While that of agriculture will decrease from 89.3% in 1990 to 77.6% in 2025. The projected requirement of water for use by the different sectors shows an increase in energy and industry as compared to the domestic and irrigation sectors by 2025, indicating a growing scarcity of water availability in the future.

Abstract

The available data revealed that the area under temperate fruits in Uttaranchal was about 1.4 lakh ha, which was more than 60 per cent of total area under fruit crops, whereas the production per annum was to the tune of 44.50 per cent  of the total fruit production in the state. The productivity status of apple (1.38 t/ha) was very low as compared to national average productivity of 4.98 t/ha. Unfortunately, the prevailing constraints such as non-availability of elite planting material; lack of technical know how; dry land horticulture; high cost of production, lack of credit awareness and availability; small and fragmented land holding; old and senile orchard; lack of transport and communication facilities; poor mechanization; lack of efficient marketing system and post harvest infrastructure do not allow the farmers to take advantage of the emerging opportunities in temperate fruit production.

Storage is one of the most important aspects of post harvest handling of fruits and vegetables. The main objective of storage is to extend storage life of fruits and vegetables and increase their period of availability. A substantial quantity of fruits go waste in India due to lack of proper storage facilities. Storage of fruits and vegetables is practiced for various reasons. Proper post harvest handling of fresh horticultural produce helps in extending  period of availability of wide range of  fruits and vegetables round the year, prevention of seasonal market gluts, orderly marketing, better return to grower and  preservation of  nutritional qualities. The   long  term  storage  of  fruits  and  vegetables is expensive and requires high level of technical  knowledge of crop. However, an orderly marketing reduces storage period considerably. 

Postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing. Losses of horticultural produce are a major problem in the postharvest chain. The diseases which develop on harvested parts of the plants like seeds, fruits and also on vegetables are the postharvested diseases. The amount or extent of damage depends mainly on the pathogen(s) involved, on the condition of the products and the condition of storage. Major tips to avoid postharvest losses include Tips to avoid postharvest losses include assessing maturity, to check your water quality, to check water temperature, avoid injury, keep the produce cool and proper storage.

“Storage” means the phase of the postharvest system during which the products are kept in such a way as to guarantee food security other than during periods of agricultural production at the marketing level, to balance the supply and demand of agricultural products, thereby stabilizing market prices. Grain, which includes dry kitchen ingredients such as flour, rice, millet, couscous, cornmeal, and so on, can be stored in rigid sealed containers to prevent moisture contamination or insect or rodent infestation. For kitchen use, glass containers are the most traditional method. Maturity indices are the sign or indication the readiness of the commodity for harvest. It is the basis for determining harvest date. Postharvest losses occur between harvest and the moment of human consumption. They include on-farm losses, such as when grain is threshed, winnowed, and dried, as well as losses along the chain during transportation, storage, and processing.

Storage : It can be defined as keeping the commodity fresh or processed in safe condition with minimum of deteriorative changes for later use.

Reasons of Deterioration During Storage

1. INTRODUCTION

To over come the problem of glut of perishables and to regulate the market, storage of such commodities is a 'common' practice. Storage of fruits and vegetables also makes available these commodities in the off-season. Needless to say, storage is a powerful tool in the prevention of postharvest losses and to give remunerative prices to the farmers. The management of temperature and relative humidity are the most important factors determining storage life of horticultural produce. The natural means like ice, cold water, night temperature have been used for long time for protecting food materials from spoilage and these are still common. However, with the development of innovative technologies, it is possible to achieve optimal environments in the insulated stores. All these aspects are discribed in this chapter.

Onion bulbs remain vulnerable to moisture loss, sprouting, rotting and microbial deterioration during extended storage. Traditional structures frequently provide inadequate ventilation and expose produce to fluctuating temperature and humidity. This chapter examines scientific curing and storage technologies, including improved ventilated structures, zero-energy cool chambers, forced-air systems and controlled or modified atmospheres. Renewable-energy and solar-powered facilities are considered for small and marginal farmers. The chapter also discusses value addition through dehydration, powdering, flaking, pickling, paste production and other processed products. Improved storage enables gradual market release and price stabilization, while value addition reduces waste, creates diversified products, enhances shelf life and generates additional income for growers and processors.

Proper marketing of perishable commodities such as fruit and vegetables often requires some storage to balance day-to-day fluctuation between harvest and sale or for long term storage. Storage of horticulture produce is attempeted with a view to extend period of availability. Storage controls shelf life of produce by controlling rate of respiration, transpiration, ripening and biochemical changes all of which are responsible for shelf decomposition/deterioration of produce. Further, different types of storage have different attributes in minimizing microbial infection and thus add to better storability of produce.

The agroclimatic conditions of Indian Himalayan region are suitable for growing temperate fruit crops like apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, almond, walnut, pecan nut, kiwi, strawberry, hazelnuts, pistachio nuts and other small fruits. The region is extended over the states of Jammu and Kashmir (J & K), Himachal Pradesh (H.P.)  and Uttaranchal (U.A.) in the north-western Himalayan region and Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, hilly areas of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and West Bengal in the north -eastern Himalayan region. Other areas are ooty, Kodai Kanal and Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu. Mount Abu in Rajasthan and hilly areas of Punjab. Although, temperate fruit growing areas in India do not fall in the temperate zone, yet the prevailing temperate climatic conditions due to high altitude and nearness to snow covered Himalayas has made the temperate fruit cultivation possible.