eChapters

8.1. Vegetables

8.1.1. Tomato (Lycopsarsicon Esculentum)

Temperature: A warm climate crop can tolerate high temperature but cannot withstand frost. Minimum temperature for germination of seed is 8 to 10°C. Night temperature for fruit setting is 12 to 22°C. Critical night temperature for fruit setting is below 12°C. Critical day temperature for fruit setting is above 32°C. If the greenhouse can maintain the temperature as mentioned above then the non-terminal or indeterminate tomato crop can be grown for 10 to 12 month duration.

Variety: Indeterminate (producing flowers and fruits continuously along the stem as it grows) hybrid varieties resistant to nematodes or fusarium or verticilium wilt disease may be selected.

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) provides the highest oil yield per hectare among all oil crops (Corley and Tinker, 2008; Rival and Levang, 2014). Examining the global palm oil production statistics, which is extracted from the mesocarp of the oil palm, the total world production stands at 79.464 million tonnes. Indonesia leads the world production with 59%, while India ranks 13th with a production of 0.305 million tonnes, contributing insignificantly to the world palm oil production. Additionally, India imports about 19% of the world’s palm oil, accounting for 9.3 million tonnes, with a net worth of 11.7 billion U.S. dollars (USDA IPAD, 2024; Statista, 2024).
In this challenging scenario, expanding the cultivation area of oil palm with high-yielding, disease-resistant, and dwarf statured varieties is imperative. The National Mission on Edible Oil-Oil Palm has set a target area of 27,99,087 hectares, but the achieved area is only 3,70,028 hectares (NMEO-OP). To meet this target, obtaining quality planting material is crucial. Traditionalvegetative propagation is not viable for oil palm due to its lack of axillary branching or axillary meristem. Given its highly cross-pollinated nature and long breeding cycle, obtaining true-to-type progeny is challenging. Therefore, the importance of propagation through in vitro mass multiplication techniques in this crop cannot be overstated.

ABSTRACT

Cassava, sweet potato and yams are root and tuber crops propagated through vegetative parts. The CTCRI is maintaining a large collection of (3985 accessions) these crop germplasm in field gene banks. Studies were conducted to transfer these collections to in vitro storage so as to clean off systemic infection and protect them from loss due to biotic and abiotic stress. Suitable media protocols, method of surface sterilization, inoculation and incubation were developed for these different crop species in order to establish initial cultures, for their multiplication and storage under slow growth. Meristem, shoot buds and tuber sprouts were used as propagules for culture initiation.Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium was found suitable for all the species studied with variations required in the concentration of growth regulators (NAA, BA and GA ) for meristem culture and micropropagation. Slow growth of cultures was induced using osmotic retardants like mannitol and sorbitol. Addenda like silver nitrate and activated charcoal was found effective in reducing leaf chlorosis and preventing leaf shedding, thereby contributing to culture life and regeneration capacity. The slow growth media developed were effective in prolonging the subculture period to 18 months (cassava), 10 months (sweet potato), and 20 months (yams). The studies have helped in establishing 400 accessions of cassava, 272 accessions of sweet potato and 166 accessions of yams in In vitro Active Gene Bank. The results are presented and discussed.

Most of the fruit, vegetables, and their products contain acid or a mixture of acids. These acids are mainly responsible for the tartness or sour taste. The level of acidity is estimated to measure the degree of tartness/sourness in the product.
Principle
Acidity in the sample is measured by titrating a known volume of sample against a standard alkali solution of known concentration using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The appearance of a light pink color indicates the endpoint of titration. However, for highly colored products like tomato sauce/ketchup, jamun juice, Rhododendron juice, mixed fruit jam, etc., accurate determination of endpoint may be difficult by using an indicator. Therefore, for such samples, acidity is measured by using electrometric methods i.e. titration to a predetermined pH value, or the sample is further diluted with distilled water to mask the interfering color. The level of titratable acidity is expressed in terms of the predominant acid. Different fruits, vegetables, and their products have different predominant acids. A list of some products having predominant acid is shown as under:

Tomato is one of the most popular and widely grown nutritious vegetable in the world. Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Linnacus Karst.) belonging to the family Solanaceae is one of the most nutritious and remunerative vegetable crop. It is the world’s important vegetable next to potato. The crop is cultivated throughout the year. In Northern plains, the crop is cultivated during autumn, spring and summer. In South India, the crop is grown in June – July, October – November and January – February. The optimum season for seed production in southern India is October – December. Nursery raised in late October and transplanted in the first week of December will produce a good seed crop.

14.1. Introduction

Tomato is grown in India in abundance both in summer and winters. Tomato though botanically a fruit is generally considered as vegetable because of the way in which it is consumed. Fresh tomatoes are very refreshing and appetizing but can not be stored for a long period. During peak season, about 25% of the produce is spoiled due to mishandling and such losses can be avoided by converting tomatoes into different value added products. Tomato can be processed into pulp, paste, puree, juice, ketchup and sauce. In India, tomato sauce and ketchup are very popular. High quality products can be prepared from tomatoes by:

1. Using uniformly ripened, red coloured tomatoes.

2. Avoid prolonged heating and cool the product immediately after cooking.

3. Avoid using iron and copper equipments and utensils at any stage of processing.

A. Tomato and Tomato Products
Tomato though botanically a fruit is generally considered a vegetable because of how it is consumed. Commercial products from tomatoes include juice, puree, paste, ketchup, soup canned and dehydrated tomatoes. Processing of tomato is now practised from home scale level to large scale enterprise. As a semi-finished product, tomato puree is prepared on a small scale while at a large scale, tomato paste has gained commercial significance. Both puree and paste are used for the preparation of different finished products like ketchup, juice, soup etc. The method for preparation of these products is well standardized, however, some modifications concerning recipes are made in the processing plants owing to variations in the quality of the raw material. The methods for the preparation of different tomato products are discussed as under: -
I. Tomato Juice/Pulp
Tomato juice is an unconcentrated product consisting of a liquid with a substantial portion of the pulp, expressed from ripe tomatoes with or without the application of heat and the addition of salt. Tomato pulp/juice is the basic ingredient for the preparation of different tomato-based products such as tomato puree, paste, ketchup etc. Fully ripe tomatoes are used for the preparation of tomato juice/pulp. All green, blemished and overripe fruits should be rejected as they adversely affect the quality of the product. The juice obtained from overripe tomatoes is usually thin and unpleasant. The juice should be deep red in colour with a characteristic taste and flavour. The juice shall have about 0.4% acidity expressed as citric acid. Cane sugar (1%) is added to further improve the taste and flavour of the finished product.

Ingredient of tomato chutney: Tomato 1kg, sugar 500g, salt 25g, onion chopped 100g, ginger chopped 10g, garlic chopped 5g, red chilli powder 10g, cinnamon, cardamom large, aniseed, cumin, black pepper powder 10g each, vinegar 100ml and sodium benzoate 0.50g/kg final product.

1. Damping off
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Disease occurs in two stages, i.e. the pre-emergence and the postemergence phase.
• In the pre-emergence phase, the seedlings are killed just before they reach the soil surface.
• The young radical and the plumule are killed and there is complete rotting of the seedlings.
• The post-emergence phase is characterized by the infection of the young, juvenile tissues of the collar at the ground level.
• The infected tissues become soft and water soaked. The seedlings topple over or collapse (Fig.1)
Etiology
• Pathogen; Pythium aphanidermatum.
• The fungus has a characteristic mycelium, which coenocytic, hyaline, freely branching and thick hyphae.
• It reproduces both asexually and sexually.

50.1. Aim

To prepare products from tomato fruits.

50.2. Theory

Commercial products from tomatoes include juice, puree and paste. Processing of tomato is now practiced from home scale level to a large scale enterprise. As a semi finished product, tomato puree is prepared on a small scale while at large scale tomato paste has gained commercial significance. Both puree and paste are used for preparation of different finished products like ketchup, juice, soup etc. The method for preparation of these products are well standardized, however, some modification with respect to recipes are made in the processing plants owing to variation in the quality of the raw material. The method for preparation and recipe of different tomato products are as under:

50.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Tomatoes.

2. Stainless steel knives, utensils, juicer, pulper, glass bottles, corking machine, crown corks, muslin cloth, boiler/gas bhatti, etc.

51.1. Aim

To prepare products from tomato fruits.

51.2. Theory

Commercial products from tomatoes include ketchup, soup, cocktail, chutney, canned and dehydrated tomatoes. Processing of tomato is now practiced from home scale level to a large scale enterprise. Both puree and paste are used for preparation of different finished products like ketchup, canned and dehydrated products, soup etc. The method for preparation of these products are well standardized, however, some modification with respect to recipes are made in the processing plants owing to variation in the quality of the raw material. The method for preparation and recipe of different tomato products are as under:

51.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Tomatoes, sugar, salt, sodium benzoate etc.

2. Stainless steel knives, utensils, juicer, pulper, glass bottles, corking machine, crown corks, muslin cloth, boiler/gas bhatti, etc.

Essentials for Quality Product Preparation

Plant ripened red tomatoes should be selected. Yellow and green fruits on processing yield dull colour and turn brown due to oxidation.

Never use iron equipment for processing. Lycopene oxidizes and turns brown when comes in contact with iron. It also forms black compounds with the tannins present in tomatoes or the spices which are used for product preparation.

Avoid prolonged heating and cool immediately to avoid over-cooking.

Sauce/Ketchup:-Fully ripe red fruits are selected, all green and blemish part are discarded. It is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and vinegar with or without onion and garlic and contains not less than 12% tomato solid and 25% total solid.

Ingredient of tomato sauce/ketchup: Tomato pulp 1kg, sugar 75g, salt 10g, onion chopped 50g, ginger chopped 10g, garlic chopped 5g, red chilli powder 5g, cinnamon, cardamom large, aniseed, cumin, black pepper powder 10g each, clove headless 5 number, vinegar 25ml or glacial acetic acid 5ml and sodium benzoate 0.25g/kg final product.

Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera: Noctuidae

This is a medium sized moth yellowish brown in colour with a wing

span of about 3 cm and a body length up to 1.4 cm. There is a dark speck and a dark area on the outer margin of each forewing. The forewings also have greyish wavy lines and black spots of different sizes on the upper side.

Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Miller, 2n = 2x = 24, also known as Solanum lycopersicum, Family Solanaceae) has been the leading vegetable crop globally. Tomato genome is composed of approximately 950 Mb of DNA, more than 75% of which is heterochromatin and largely devoid of genes. The global production of tomato in 2017 has been 182 million tons from 5 million ha area giving a productivity of 36.4 tons/ha. Top 10 countries in tomato production in descending order are China, India, Turkey, USA, Egypt, Iran, Italy, Spain, Mexico and Brazil. Tomato is planted almost throughout the year in different parts of India in an area of 8 lakh ha (0. 8 million ha) with production of 20.8 million tons giving a productivity of 26 ton/ha. Tomato area in India is almost 10% of total vegetable area. The states accounting for major tomato production in India are Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Gujarat, and Himachal Pradesh.

Out of total area, about 78% is planted with F₁ hybrid seed while remaining 22% of the area still goes to open-pollinated varieties. The average productivity of tomato close to 26 tons/ha is still very low compared with the global productivity of 36.4 tons/ha. However, with the introduction of high performing and disease resistant hybrids, the productivity and production are continuously improving. Most of hybrid tomato seed (95 tons) is sold by the private seed companies. There are more than 375 tomato hybrids in the commercial chain in India produced and marketed by different companies. About 50 hybrids out of these 375 hybrids are being grown on more than 80% of the area under tomato in India. Leading companies in tomato hybrid seed segment are Seminis (Bayer), Syngenta, Rasi HyVeg, and Namdhari (NHB, 2015; Kapur, 2016).

Tomato is relatively recent addition to the world’s vegetable crops. Now became one of the most important vegetable crops and is popular & widely consumed. It is being grown extensively in USA, China, India, France, Israel and Netherland.
 
It is used in fresh and processed form. Among the vegetables maximum attempts have been made to improve this crop because of its short duration, easy cultivation and large number of seeds per fruit and this has made it an ideal crop for many research works. An exclusive Tomato Genetics Co-operative located in University of California, USA, published genetic information on the crop and maintains a large number of     collections which have already been thoroughly catalogued.
 
Origin and Distribution: Native of Peru in South America and spread to North America by migrating birds. Largest number of wild tomato forms is present in Mexico. Spanish Priests introduced it to Europe in around 1550. In Europe it is known as Poma amoris = Amorous apple (Love apple). Wild relatives found in narrow elongated mountainous regions of Andes in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia and Galapagos islands. Domestication and cultivation of tomato appears to have first occurred outside its centre or origin. Domestication of tomato was first done by Mexican people i.e. Red Indians, which is considered as secondary center of origin. Now cultivated tomato is common in Peru but recently added to their diet.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most commercially important vegetable crops globally, with a significant demand for high-yielding hybrids and improved open-pollinated varieties. Efficient seed production methodologies play a crucial role in ensuring the availability of genetically pure and high-quality seeds for commercial cultivation. Traditional hand emasculation and pollination remain widely used despite being labor intensive, given their economic feasibility due to high seed yield per fruit. Hybrid seed production is further refined through mechanized pollen collection and controlled pollination techniques, enhancing efficiency. Seed quality management, including rigorous isolation protocols, field inspections, and breeder and foundation seed production standards, ensures genetic purity and viability. Advances in molecular breeding and the application of marker-assisted selection (MAS) have enhanced the efficiency of parental line development and hybrid seed production. This chapter provides an in-depth review of tomato seed production methodologies, covering botanical characteristics, genetic resources, and breeding objectives aimed at improving disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and fruit quality traits. It further discusses varietal advancements in the public and private sectors, highlighting elite hybrids and open-pollinated cultivars tailored for different agro-climatic conditions. Additionally, the package of practices for seed production in tomato underscores the importance of isolation, field inspections, seed extraction methods, processing techniques, and quality assurance standards to maintain genetic purity and seed viability.

Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Tomato was classified under Lycopersicon for several years although, initially Linnaeus (1753) classified it in the genus Solanum. Recently, molecular studies provided new data on the relationships of tomato-potato and based on these results, tomato has been again assigned to the genus Solanum. Solanum section Lycopersicon includes the cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and its wild relatives, Solanum lycopersicum being the only domesticated species. The wild cherry tomato, Solanum lycopersicum var cerasiforme, the ancestor of the modern cultivated tomato has been originated in Peru-Ecuador-Bolivia region of the Andes. The Veracruz-Puebla region of Mexico is the centre of domestication of the cultivated tomato. From Mexico, tomato was taken to Italy, Spain, Portugal and other European countries, Africa and Middle East by the explorers in the 16th century. It was taken to Philippines after its discovery by Magellan in 1521, and from there it was taken to other Asian countries. Tomatoes did not have an easy passage even in Europe. The fruit got tagged as the “poison apple” in Britain, France, Spain and other European countries. Tomato moved to the USA from northern Europe around 1781 where it was first grown by Thomas Jefferson in Virginia.

The major tuber crops cultivated in tropical countries are: cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.), yams (Dioscorea sp.), aroids (Amorphophallus, Alocasia, Xanthosoma, Colocasia ), Canna edulis, arrowroot, Chinese potato, winged bean and yam bean. In addition to this, there are a number of under exploited and under utilized tuber crops grown as wild cultivars having medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Processing and utilization of tuber crops as food are traditional with both primitive as well as modern equipments being in use (Nanda and Kurup, 1994). One of the oldest traditional processing tools is a stone pounder for making poi from taro in Hawaii.

Sickle: Used for cutting grass, fodder and harvesting crop. Sickle made of steel is better and lasts longer.