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India has experienced rapid urbanization as well as industrialization since independence. Though, the country has achieved considerable progress in industrial growth as well as expansion of urban and town spread, the land available in urban periphery as well as near big rivers are being utilized for non agriculture purposes. Similarly, for the development of road, rail as well as irrigation infrastructure, the government reserved huge land, which was under cultivation of various crops. The non agricultural businesses became more remunerative near cities and has increased the value of land near cities; which is not affordable for agriculture production. Considering the limitation of land for production purposes in urban areas, the concept of Urban Horticulture was conceived.

Different basic as well as advanced laboratory equipment need to be used in a laboratory while conducting experiments. Many of them like pH meter, laminar air-flow hood, viscometer, thermometer, magnetic stirrer, microwave ovens, incubators, sand-bath, water-bath, oil-bath, etc. are the basic and simple equipment which require to be used routinely while conducting experiments in a laboratory. However, basic knowledge of their operation, handling procedure, when to be used, how to be used, and more importantly what not to be done with it, etc. are essential for keeping them in serviceable condition as well as for the accuracy/precision in their operation. In this chapter, we will discuss about some of the routinely used laboratory equipment along, while some other sophisticated equipment will be discussed in other chapters.

pH Meter

A pH meter measures exactly the H+ concentration of a solution; thus indicates acidity or alkalinity of a solution with greater precision. Actually, it measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and display the results converted into the corresponding pH value. Electrode is the key part (rod-like structure, usually made of glass) of a pH meter, having a bulb at the bottom containing a sensor. The pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices (portable/pocket pH meter) to complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interface (Figure 5.1).

Frequent calibration of a pH meter using the solutions of known pH (standard solution of pH 4.01, 7.00, 10.01, Figure 5.2), generally before each use, ensures the accuracy of the instrument. For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. This is necessary because the glass electrode does not give a reproducible measurement over a longer period of time.

Introduction

To accomplish experimentations in laboratories, sometimes we need microscope to test/validate our ideas/findings. A microscope is needed to examine objects which are very small which cannot be visualised by naked eyes. However, microscopic study requires some expertise in operating the microscope, particularly the sophisticated microscopes, as well as to prepare (peeling, sections, cutting, fixation, staining, dehydration, mounting, etc.) the sample, so that it can be appropriately examined for the anticipated details.

According to the scientific requirements different types of microscopes are used in the laboratories for research purpose. In this chapter, our aim is to acquaint you with the basics of using and handling of microscopes, particularly a compound microscope that is commonly used by the graduate and post graduate students for basic research.

Microscopy is often designated as the scientific investigation that is employed to review and analyse minute structures and objects using a microscope. The term “microscope” has been derived from ancient Greek words “micros” meaning “small” and “skopeîn” meaning “to look at or see,”.

Microscope

A microscope is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects (biological specimens) which are too small to be seen by the naked eye. The microscope must accomplish three tasks:

• Magnification- to provide a magnified image of the specimen.

• Resolution- to separate the details in the image.

• Contrast- to render the details clearly visible to the eyes.

Although we will tnroduce to you the different types of microscopes used for different speciments, our main focus is to discuss about compound microscope, which is commonly used in the laboratories. Compound microscope was developed around the beginning of 17th century.

A variety of glassware like burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders, flasks, separating funnel etc. are used for experimental purposes in a laboratory. All of these need to be used and handled correctly, otherwise the chances of experimental error and damage to the glassware increase significantly. Being made of glass, they need special care while washing and using in experiments because even a minor mistake in handling of glassware may result in breakage of the apparatus. With this precautionary note, let us discuss about some of the specific glassware used in the laboratories.

Burette

Burette is a long graduated glass tube with a stopcock at one end for delivering a known/desired volume of a liquid, especially in titration experiments. It contains a stopcock at the lower end and a tapered capillary tube as the stopcock’s outlet. The flow rate of liquid from the tub stopcock’s outlet can be controlled with the help of stopcock valve. Burette is used for measuring the volume of a solution/chemical added in a quantitative (titrimetric) estimation experiment.

Procedure of using a Burette

The burette reading must be noted before and after delivering the chemical/ solution from the burette. The difference in these two readings is the volume of the chemical/solution released out of the burette. The solution should be released slowly/drop-by-drop to avoid any experimental error/mistake. If the solution/chemical is allowed to pour out too fast, the wall of the burette will not drain properly and some liquid may remain sticking to the surface of the walls. Moreover, excessive amount of chemical may be released/dropped during the experiment, particularly during the titration experiment wherein we need to know the exact amount of acid/base needed to get neutralization point. Thus, any minor mistake may lead to get a faulty reading. The measuring capacity of a burette usually used in a laboratory is 50 mL.

Since mouth pipetting of liquid reagents in a laboratory is not advisable, different tools are needed for safe, easier, and precise dispensing of liquid reagents. This chapter is devoted to make you aware of the tools like vacupette and micropipette which can be used for the handling of liquid reagents in a safe and precise way.

Vacupette

Glass pipettes have been traditionally used by sucking liquid solvent/solution directly using mouth. For safety reasons, mouth pipetting is no longer permitted in a laboratory. Hence, to fill a pipette vacupette is used by placing it on the top of glass or plastic pipette. It acts as a device to create vacuum for filling reagent in the pipette as well as for releasing the reagent with mechanical regulation on the flow out of the liquid. Vacupette can be of different types.

1. Rubber Bulb Vacupette

Rubber bulb vacupette is often used to transfer (pump up and discharge) liquid using a pipette when a larger quantity of chemicals is to be transferred. Small/tiny rubber bulb is attached to glass/plastic pipette for drawing little amount of reagents. Small vacupette is used to precisely discharge smaller volume/ drops.

Handling of Vacupette

• Insert the top of a pipette in the bottom of the rubber bulb vacupette (Figure 6.1).

• Remove air from the pipette by squeezing valve “A” at the top of the vacupette while simultaneously squeezing the rubber bulb. The amount of air released depends on the size of the rubber bulb.

The term bio-fertilizer is related with such microorganisms that they add, conserve and mobilize the plant nutrients in the soil. Excessive use of nonrenewable exhaustive petroleum product based chemicals in horticultural production system has residual effect on soil, environment and human health. Use of biofertilizers is ecofriendly, cost effective and organic based inputs such as botanical pesticides, FYM, vermicompost, biogas slurry, disease and pest resistant varieties in cultivation of horticultural crops for safeguarding soil health and quality production.

Biofertilizers are microorganisms, which are capable of mobilizing nutrients from unavailable form to available form through biological process. They are not only cost effective but also inexpensive source of plant nutrients. They do not require non-renewable source of energy during their production. Besides, improving crop growth and quality of the product by producing plant hormones and help in sustainable crop production through maintenance of soil productivity. They are also useful as biocontrol agents, as they control many plant pathogens.

At present, approximately 1.4 million of the world’s species are described, but  majority are still unknown to science. Plant genetic resources have gained global attention in  recent past by agricultural and environmental institutions. Conservation and use of genetic resources attracted considerable attention. Value of biological diversity in economic terms is very important for human society. India is one of the major centers of diversity in world. A small part of plant and their culture is considered as floriculture. India is bestowed with varied types of agro-climatic conditions conductive for growing a wide variety of ornamentals including flowers. India has a rich heritage of ornamental floriculture.

In rural and hilly areas there are different types of colourful flowers and foliage at different seasons round the year. All these colourful flowers and foliage are wasted under natural process. In spite of aesthetic beauty, all these natural resources are totally unutilized due to unawareness of their use. All these flowers are available in wide range of colours but mostly dominated by yellow. The entire seasonal colourful vegetations can be converted into value added products by using simple dehydration technique developed at National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow. The technique is  suitable for dehydration of flowers and foliage. Present chapter will highlight how dehydration techniques can be utilized for preparation of value added products from seasonal unutilized floral vegetation of rural India.

Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most valuable and popular fruit crops all over the world (Mohsen, 2021). In India, grapes are mainly grown for table, raisin and wine making. Major grape producing countries are China, Italy, France, Spain, USA, Turkey, and India while, major wine producing countries are France, Italy, Spain, and USA (OIV, 2024). According to an estimate, grapevine is spread on an area of 1.71 lakh ha and production was 37.81 lakh MT in the country during the year 2023-24 (NHB, 2024). India ranks first in world for grape productivity and 7th for grape production during 2023-24 (APEDA, 2024).
Traditionally, grapes are grown on their own roots. However, due to deteriorating soil and water conditions, the use of rootstocks has become essential in the tropical climate of India to maintain production (Singh and Sharma, 2005). The grape industry which is important to produce wine and table grapes is facing  significant challenges due to changing climatic conditions. Climate change has led to increased temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events, all of which can adversely affect grapevine health and productivity. To combat, the role of grape rootstocks has become increasingly vital for maintaining sustainable viticulture. Grape rootstocks are the belowgraft joint part of the grapevine onto which the scion variety is grafted. These rootstocks are typically derived from species of Vitis genus other than Vitis vinifera, the primary species used for grape production.

The plant growth regulators are the organic compounds other than the nutrients, which accelerate, inhibit or modify the various physiological processes in the plant system, when applied at low concentration. These growth regulators are readily absorbed and move rapidly in the tissues, when applied to the plant system and regulate its life processes in some beneficial ways to enhance the yield and improve the quality of the fruits.

The word hormone is derived from Greek, meaning set in motion. The five major phytohormones are auxins (indole-3-acetic acid and its derivatives), gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene. The key difference between plant hormones and plant growth regulators is that plant hormones are natural, while plant growth regulators are artificially synthesized and are applied to plants. Plant hormones are also called phytohormones. Plant hormones are the organic chemicals, which are synthesized by plants themselves naturally during the metabolic processes.These are synthesized at the given site and translocated to the site of action.

Principle of ICP Optical Emission Spectrometry

The ICP is a partially ionized gas (mostly Ar) plasma produced in a quartz torch using a 1–2.5 kW radio frequency power supply. Samples are typically introduced into the center of the plasma as aerosols. Compared to the atomic absorption spectrophotometers, in which the excitation temperature of the air acetylene flame measures 2000–3000 “K, the excitation temperature of the argon ICP is 7000–10,000 K, which efficiently excites many elements. The solution for analysis is carried by a peristaltic pump through a nebulizer into a spray chamber, where aerosol is produced by the argon gas. The aerosol thus generated is directed into the central channel of the plasma. The plasma in ICP is generated at the end of a quartz torch by a water-cooled induction coil through which a high-frequency alternate current flows. Consequently, an alternate magnetic field is induced, which accelerates electrons into a circular trajectory. Due to the collision between the argon atoms and the electrons, ionization occurs, giving rise to stable plasma. At the core of argon plasma, the temperature is sustained at approximately 10,000 K, where aerosols are quickly vaporized. Subsequently, atomization and ionization of the sample analyte elements take place. Due to the thermic energy taken up by the electrons, they reach a higher “excited” state. When the electrons drop back to ground level, energy is liberated as light (photons). Each element has its own characteristic emission spectrum. By means of an Echelle grating, a prism, and a focusing mirror, these emitted photons at various frequencies are captured simultaneously by the suitable detectors. The wavelength of the photons can be used to identify the elements from which they originate.

Protected cultivation, encompassing systems like greenhouses, polyhouses, and shade nets, has revolutionized modern agriculture by creating controlled environments that shield crops from adverse climatic conditions. This method not only extends the growing period but also enhances the quantity and quality of yields.
A key element of success in protected cultivation is the efficient management of water and nutrients, made possible through advanced irrigation and fertigation techniques.
IRRIGATION IN PROTECTED CULTIVATION
Irrigation is essential for delivering adequate moisture to crops, which is crucial for their healthy development. In protected cultivation settings—where rainfall is either insufficient or unpredictable—reliable irrigation systems become even more important. Traditional methods like surface or furrow irrigation are less effective, often leading to water loss and irregular distribution. In contrast, modern systems such as drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation provide precise delivery of water directly to the plant’s root zone, significantly reducing evaporation and runoff. Among these, drip irrigation has become particularly popular due to its high efficiency. By applying water directly at the soil surface near the roots, it minimizes wastage and ensures consistent moisture levels. This technique not only saves water but also supports healthy root growth and reduces the incidence of soil-borne diseases. Research shows that drip irrigation can decrease water consumption by 30–70% while improving crop productivity by 20–90% compared to conventional irrigation methods.

ABSTRACT

Interaction of cationic dye acridine orange with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) isolated from Rhizobium strains specific (IC59) and non-specific (TAL1000) to chickpea (Cicer arietinum.L L.) has been investigated by spectrophotometric measurements. The strain specific (IC59) lipopolysaccharide induced decrease in absorbance of the α-band of acridine orange at 490 nm and finally upon further addition of LPS /Dye ratio in the range of 30~60 giving rise to α-polymeric metachromatic band at 660 nm. In contrast the LPS from non-specific strain (TAL1000) induces a decrease in absorbance at the α-band till LPS / Dye ratios are 0~50. This suggest that the anionic changes of strain specific LPS is different from non-specific strain enabling formation of large acridine orange aggregate on the surface of specific strain.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are free-living bacteria  having beneficial effect on plants by root colonization. They stimulate plant’s growth. Intensive research work is carried out on use of various PGPR as plant growth promoters on various crops. There are reports which show that PGPR promoted growth and reproductive parameters of cereals, pulses, ornamentals, vegetable crops, plantation crops and even  tree species. The important PGPR used in vegetable crops are Azospirillum, Azotobactor, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Phosphate Solubilising Bacteria (PSB) and Bacillus subtilis.

Plant growth regulators are organic compounds occurring naturally in plants as well as synthetic, other than nutrients, which in small amounts promote, inhibit or modify any physiological process in plants.

Basically, PGRs are of two types

Plastic has now become an integral part of horticultural production at various stages from nursery to marketing at consumers’ door during the last two decades. It is used at each and every stage of horticultural life cycle right from seeds packaging, nursery seedling raising, planting, propagation, mulching, irrigation, harvesting, fruit packing, preservation and marketing. The application of plastics in the agriculture sector is popularly known as Plasticulture.In 1948 Professor E.M. Emmert built the first plastic greenhouse, a wooden structure covered with cellulose acetate film. He later switched this to a more effective polyethylene film. After the introduction of plastic film to agriculture, it began being used at a larger scale around the world by the early 1950s to replace paper for mulching vegetables. By 1999 almost 30 million acres worldwide were covered in plastic mulch.

Phosphorus is one of the key nutrients required for higher and sustained productivity of potato and its influence on tuber yield is very well established. Phosphatic fertilizers are expensive and in developing countries like India, they are either imported or manufactured using imported raw material. Due to increase in cost in the recent past, there has been a decreasing trend in the amounts of P fertilizer applied in India (Sundara and Natarajan, 1997 and Sundara, 1988). At the same time, soils contain substantial reserves of total P, most of it remains relatively inert, and only less than 10% of soil P enters the plant–animal cycle (Kucey et al., 1989). Upon addition to the soils, soluble phosphates react with the constituents of the soil and form compounds that are less soluble. This conversion depends upon the soil type. In acid soils, the reaction products are aluminium and iron phosphates and in the predominantly calcareous soils, the reaction products are calcium phosphates. As a result most of the P applied (often as much as 90%) is rendered unavailable for crop uptake but is retained in insoluble form. This is the reason that the potato-based cropping systems in different potato growing pockets generally show positive P balance resulting into its build up (Singh et al., 1994). Thus, soils commonly have large reserves of ‘fixed’ P that could support long-term crop requirements if it could be mobilized through appropriate soil management including use of P-solubilizing microbes. The ability of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) to convert insoluble forms of phosphorus to an accessible form is an important trait in sustainable farming for increasing plant yields (Singh and Kapoor, 1994). The beneficial effects of PSB on crop productivity have been widely described. These soil phosphate solubilizing bacteria stay near the roots and make the phosphorus available to plants from soil.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wild fruits are highly nutritious and contain vitamins, carbohydrates, protein and minerals in higher quantity than majority of other common cultivated fruits. They are also a rich source of several bioactive substances, compared to the cultivated fruits. In India,these wild fruit trees grow abundantly across an altitudinal gradient of Himalaya and the majority of them bear fruits during summer. Fruit varieties are consumed by the local inhabitants of the region. At the same time, there are numerous under exploited species of wild fruits having high potential for exploitation viz., Bael (Aegle marmelos CL.), Berberis asiatica DC, Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.,) Rubus sp., Prunus armeniaca L., Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) Bitter Almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch Smith), Feijoa sp. Among the wild fruits, Hippophae sp.was found to be economically efficient, followed by Aegle marmelos, Rubus ellipticus Smith, respectively. Wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), a semi-domesticated and less utilized fruit of the higher Himalaya, provides better economic returns on an annual basis. Attempts have been made to utilize these wild fruits as a source of income, particularly for poor rural inhabitants and unemployed youths of the region by making a variety of edible products such as jam, jelly, juice, squash, sauce, wine etc. Here in this article, production of wine, vermouth and brandy from wild fruits would be focused. But before discussing preparation of wine and brandy in detail, we shall be describing the general process of wine and brandy making first, then the products from the specific wild fruits.

Dry Flower Products

Dry flowers are aesthetically beautiful and they enhance the décor and liveliness of any room. They bring the fiery warmth and bounty of the season into the home with ease every fall. Much of fall’s beauty lies in the glorious changing colors of autumn leaves. These flowers are dried to use them in a wide range of products. Dried floral products are widely used for decoration and for adding zest to a room. Apart from that they are also used as an essential component of many products. They are widely used to make handmade paper, lampshades, candle holders, jute bags, photo frames, boxes, books, wall quilts, topiary, cards and several gifts. The use of dry flowers in the making of these products enhances the appearance and beauty of these products. They look sophisticated when gifted to someone or used as a décor of your own home.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food processing industries are engaged in production of different types of processed products and generate various types of wastes. These wastes, whether solid or liquid, on one hand are a direct loss to the producer or manufacturer and on the other hand create environmental pollution, if not disposed properly. Therefore, the processors would always like to minimize these wastes. The generation of wastes not only cause economic losses but would also require additional cost for their management and disposal. As a matter of fact, it is often estimated that proper use of efficient machinery and careful handling during various operations can lead to more than 50% reduction in losses.

In general, the wastes from the food processing industries are either not utilized or primarily utilized as animal feed, fertilizer and in preparation of by-products on a limited extent. Many of the wastes such as cuttings and shreds from the fruit and vegetable processing industry can be used as animal feed. Fruit and vegetables wastes can also be used for extraction of starch, pectin, natural colouring matter, fat, essential oils etc. Wheat and maize bran alongwith palm kernel are used for the production of feed for chickens. Various oils and oleoresins having enormous pharmaceutical properties can be obtained from the spice processing industry.

Fermentation is a cheap and energy efficient means of preserving perishable raw materials. It commonly does not require any sophisticated equipment, neither is the storage of fermented products a big issue. Fermented foods play an important role in providing food security, enhancing livelihoods and improving the nutrition and social well being of millions of people around the world, particularly the marginalised and vulnerable population across the developing countries.

Several products of fruits and vegetables are prepared on commercial and home scale. Products development from fruits and vegetables is the best way to utilize excess produces and save them from post harvest losses..

Value Addition

This is the process of improving the value of a commodity through processing by changing its form, increasing its shelf life or better presentation like packaging. Value addition can be done through the ways.