eChapters

1. Introduction

Spices play an important role in human life since time immemorial. Mainly in India, it is not only important as dietary or health product but few spices also have its religious significance. India is being not only largest producer and consumer but exporter of spices also and hence having potential to enhance the economic value of spices. According to Union Minister for Agriculture and Farmer’s Welfare, Spices production in the country grew from 67.64 lakh tonnes in 2014-15 to 106.79 lakh tonnes around 2020-21 having annual increase of 7.90%, along with increase in area from 32.24 lakh hectares to 45.28 lakh hectares. With this increase in production and increasing demand of spices because of their health benefits, spices do have economic benefits and farmers can earn better through it.

1. Introduction

Underutilized vegetables are essential to the lives of the poor in rural and urban areas, as they provide poverty reduction and environmental sustainability for healthy societies. Traditionally, underutilized vegetables have been known to play an important role in the nutrition of rural communities, especially during droughts, famines and the dry season. Some of these undeveloped resources have been domesticated, but most are still wild and worthless. The potential of these underutilized vegetables has been overlooked as modern agriculture has progressed. These vegetables are also called by different names including minor crops, orphan crops, neglected species, Underused Vegetables, under developed vegetables, local traditional, alternative vegetables and also promising species. Underutilized species have a lot of genetic variety, and they’re tied to a lot of indigenous knowledge. 

Introduction

Marketing sector via value addition has gained momentum with the rapidly growing flora industry. It is the ultimate way to rescue the flowers from the huge postharvest losses. Value addition in form of floral craft increases the economic value and consumer appeal of floricultural commodities and serving as a linkage between growers and consumers, it directly emphasizes the utility of flowers and a necessity for marketing of flowers. Other forms of value addition in flowers like essential oils, tinting, flower-drying, natural dye, art of floral arrangements are gaining momentum and popularising in our country as well.

Abstract

The present studies were undertaken in selfed and open pollinated seedlings of 11 cultivars namely Belrubi, Blackmore, Catskill, Chandler, Fairfax,  Fern, Pajaro, Seascape, Selva, Tioga and Torrey during the years 2001 to 2003.  The days taken to 50%  flowering varied  from 43 to 64 days, flower number from 11.8 to 22.4 and pollen viability from 77.5 to 85.2%. The pollen germination was highest in 20% sucrose solution +  5 ppm boric acid in all the progenies.  The fruit length varied from 27.8 mm to 35.5 mm, breadth 21.3 to 27.9 mm, fruit weight 8.8 to 12.2 g, fruit firmness 0.23 to 0.33 lbs force, number of achenes per fruit 176.9 to 297.9, pedicel length 6.4 to 9.5 cm, TSS 8.1 to 12.3^ºB, titratable acidity 0.58 to 1.24%, total sugars 5.1 to 7.3, reducing  sugars 4.8 to 6.8% and non-reducing sugars from 0.50 to 1.11%.  Fruit development period  varied from 32.8 to 53.6 days, total number of fruits per plant 7.2 to 17.9, fruit yield per plant 27.4 to 57.3 g and fruit yield per plot from 0.77 to 1.40 Kg in different progenies.

1. Introduction

Spices are a high-value, low-volume commodity traded around the world. Spices have played a significant part in civilisation, exploration, and commerce throughout history. Since ancient times, India has been known as the spice capital of the world, with over a hundred different types of spices grown. India has long been a traditional producer, consumer, and exporter of spices, with nearly every state producing one or more of them. India has a total area under spice production of 39,27,430 ha, which produced 95,99,900 MT in 2017-18. (Spices Board, 2020a). Due to their rich aroma, texture, and flavour, Indian spices are in high demand around the world.

Abstract

Considerable variation for different metric and non-metric characters was observed in seedling population of Pistachionut. The variation for non-metric characters was observed for precocity in flowering, colour of the kernel, shelling and splitting percentage. The studies have resulted in the identification of two pistillate and three staminate trees with desirable traits which can be exploited in breeding programme or used as elite planting material.

10.1 Introduction

Plant breeders come across two categories of characters (traits) for improvement, namely, qualitative characters and quantitative characters. Red vs white flower, round vs wrinkled seed, determinate plant growth vs indeterminate plant growth etc. are examples of qualitative trait differences. There is no overlapping of characters and no confusion during classification. Such trait differences are usually governed by one or two gene pairs, each with large effect that can be measured even in the presence of segregation at other loci and even in the presence of effects of environmental factors. These characters are very less influenced by the environmental factors.

On the other hand, most of the traits of economic importance like yield of fruits of vegetable and fruit crops, yield of vegetative parts in fodder crops, yield of lint in cotton, yield of grains in cereals, pulses, oilseeds etc., plant height, days to maturity etc. are examples of quantitative characters. Variation observed for such traits is continuous. Again, there is overlapping of trait differences. So, one cannot assign individuals to a specific class unambiguously. Such characters are influenced by environmental factors, such that phenotypes are not same when grown over locations and/or seasons.

When different plants/lines of a species exhibit trait differences, it is called variation. Variation is essential for any improvement in a crop. It may be present in the population to be improved or else it may be created by different means such as hybridization, mutation, polyploidy, domestication, plant introduction, somaclonal variation, genetic engineering etc. Now, we shall discuss the types and estimation of variation.

When a variety is grown under different environmental conditions, phenotype is the result of genotype+environment+genotype×environment interaction. Genotype×environment refers to the interaction effect of the genotype with different environments. Presence of this interaction leads to overestimation of genetical and biometrical parameters and thus may yield misleading results. This interaction also influences the varietal adaptation of new improved genotypes. Adaptation refers to certain varietal features (morphological and physiological) which promote survival under that environment. In production and breeding programmes adaptability is related to economic yield i.e. genotypes producing higher economic yield under different environmental conditions are comparatively more adaptive than those which produce low yield. Varietal adaptability refers to the capability of a genotype to grow normally and perform well in an environment or different environments. Adaptation of genotypes depends upon certain characters i.e. both morphological and physiological which promote survival under an environment. In natural conditions adaptation is brought by natural selection, but in artificial breeding, adaptation is induced by the breeders.

Variety is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced either sexually or asexually retains their characters. The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. The factors that are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production are :

• Developmental Variation
• Mechanical Mixtures
• Mutations
• Natural Crossing
• Genetic drift
• Minor Genetic Variation
• Selective influence of Diseases
• Techniques of the Breeder
• Breakdown of male sterility
• Improper/defective seed certification System

1. INTRODUCTION

For maintenance of genetic purity in the field with the seed crop and to test verify the standards in certification programme, the studies on varietal characterization and identification have attracted the attention of breeders, breeder’s right protection institutions, farmers, the seed industry, certification agencies, and seed testing laboratories with a view to assure the quality of seed marketed to the consumers.

The genus Amaranthus is rather unique in having species which are used for vegetable, grain and ornamental purposes. Vegetable amaranth, Amaranthus spp. under the family Amaranthaceae (Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 32, 34) is the most common tropical leafy vegetable in Southeast Asian countries especially India, Malaysia, Indonesia, southern China and hot and humid regions of Africa. It is an excellent source of β carotene, vitamin C, iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, folic acid and dietary fibre. Its protein content (20-38% based on dry matter) includes methionine and other sulphur-containing amino acids. It is cultivated throughout India however, it is a common leafy vegetable in southern states viz., Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
The phylogenetic relationship and taxonomic delimitation in the genus Amaranthus under the family Amaranthaceae are still not resolved with extreme clarity. Phylogenetic analysis revealed clear separation of vegetable and grain amaranths. The derivation of grain and vegetable amaranths represent two lines of descent from the weed progenitor. Amaranthus hybridus L. This species has spread to different tropical countries like Mexico, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Amaranthus is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Vegetable amaranth is the most common leafy vegetable crop grown in India. Several kinds of vegetable amaranths under the genus Amaranthus and belonging to different species are grown in India.

• Botanical name: Lycopersicon esculatum
• Family: Solaceae
• Origin: Peru/Mexico
• CN: 24
• India is the second largest producer of tomato in the world after China followed by Turkey, USA and Italy.
• Highest producing state:Orrisa > Andhra pradesh > KN
• Highest productivity: KN > MH > Assam
• Tomato is universally treated as ‘Protective food’.
• The total sugar content is 2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Vitamin-C: 16–65mg/100g of fruit weight.
• The total amino acid is 100–350mg/100g of fruit weight.
• Processed product of tomato like puree and paste have great demand in export.
• Tomato is a herbaceous, annual to perennial plant.

Cropping system is defined as the cropping pattern followed on a farm and its interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises and production technology. The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a given area is termed as cropping pattern.

India has over 17% of world’s population living on 2.4% of the world’s geographical area. Per capita agricultural land has reduced by 67% from 0.48 ha in 1951 to 0.16 ha in 2008 due to explosive increase in population. In this situation, it is very difficult to get horizontal expansion in vegetable cultivation. Hence, total production per unit area can be increased by increasing the productivity per unit area through (a) growing improved high yielding varieties and hybrids, (b) adequate and scientific crop management practices and (c) increasing cropping intensities following different cropping patterns.

Concern for improvement of nutritional quality of vegetables has arisen in the context of providing nutritional security to our ever-increasing population. Nutritional security denotes the consumption and physiological use of adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food by every member of the family and encompasses the process of equitable distribution among members of household and communities (Nandi and Bhattacharjee, 2002). This would entail the need to ensure a varied food intake, comprising all the essential macro-and micronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins), plant pigments (lycopene, beta-carotene, anthocianin, lutein, capsanthin, zeaxanthin, etc.) and other functional phytochemicals (secondary metabolites, like flavonoids, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, etc.) through a diversified diet. In this regard, production and consumption of vegetables that are the valuable source of micronutrients, beneficial phytonutrients and highly functional phytochemicals hold the key in assuring nutritional security.

Implication of vegetables in diet has been well conceived among the high-income group in the world since human health in recent years has assumed an unprecedently important status. Increased interests in nutrition, fitness and beauty have exaggerated concerns over diet and human health. A new diet-health paradigm is evolving which places more emphasis on the positive aspects of diet. Foods have now assumed the status of functional foods, which should be capable of providing additional physiological benefits, such as preventing or delaying the onset of chronic diseases as well as meeting basic nutritional requirements so with high-income elasticity, the demand for vegetables and perception of diversified diet have been growing steadily, hence, both access and consumption of vegetables have been increasing in the urban and peri-urban population groups. However, meeting the requirements for macro- and micronutrients for most of the population groups in households and communities of South Asia, Latin America and African countries seems far off because of meager presence of vegetables in the diet. In south Asia where meat intake is low, ascorbic acid emerges as one of the most important enhancers of iron absorption. This is attributed to the fact that foods containing vegetables may provide an optimal mix of minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, dietary fibers and other non-nutrients bioactive compounds.

Plant breeding/genetic improvement aims at altering plant genotypes in a way that they suit human needs for food, feed and industrial raw products and support sustainable plant production. In that sense, plant breeding may be regarded as the evolution of plant type by the will of mankind. Plant breeding/genetic improvement is important because an improved cultivar is the most-economic and least laborious input for farmers.

Plant breeding is one of the early accomplishments of humankind. Many of the cultivated plants are the result of slow and involuntary improvement from wild progenitors by human being over centuries. In fact, the process of domestication of wild plants is one of the most fascinating chapters in the history of humankind. Concept of plant breeding came in the being through domestication as it involved selection of the most desirable types. Among the ancient domesticates, some of the vegetable crops are front-runners, like peas, radish, muskmelon, watermelon, etc. Other present day popular vegetable crops were domesticated later in the Neolithic times. Some species including certain vegetables are still undergoing the domestication process. However, for all practical purposes, the breeders have given up domestication of wild relatives of the cultivated species. Today, breeders often incorporate important characters, like resistance to biotic stresses, adaptability to environments, etc. to the cultivated forms from their wild relatives.

Selection from the available variations is the oldest and the most effective breeding procedure. However, genetic recombination at present forms the basis of modern plant breeding approach. In this respect, Josef Kolreuter’s extensive crossing experiments between 1755 and 1806 were essentially the first attempts to scientifically-reconstruct naturally occurring species and types by combining their characters. Any way, no matter what method is adopted in the breeding approach, it inevitably involves selection, which is the most difficult part of overall breeding process.

The industrial revolution in Western Europe and concomitant flourish of capitalism and increasing commercial agricultural production stimulated breeding activities as a profitable venture of capitalistic economy. Throughout the 19th century, thousands of large and small seed companies were developed in Germany, England and the United States out of this impetus.

Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and having chromosome no. 2n = 2x =22 is in cultivation from ancient times in the tropics of old world. Cowpea is grown for green edible pods, immature seeds, dry grains and edible leaves as leafy greens. The immature pods and seeds as well as dry seeds besides being widely used as fresh vegetable and pulse are also frozen and canned. Immature pods are good source of protein, fibre, minerals, calcium and vitamins particularly vitamin A, B and C. It covers large areas in South Asia including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar and Sri Lanka besides Southeast Asian countries, like Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Philippines. It is also grown extensively in Brazil and other countries of Latin America. In Africa, it is commonly eaten as a pulse along with sorghum and millets while in India it is used both as pulse and vegetable almost throughout the country. Cowpea is also grown for hay or forage and green manure crop.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Cowpea is one of the most ancient human food sources and has probably been used as a crop plant since Neolithic times. All evidence points to its originating in Africa because of the presence of conspecific wild forms, although where the crop was first domesticated is uncertain. Among the African countries, Ethiopia, Central and South Africa and West Africa are considered to be the probable centre of origin. Although, there is no archaeological evidence for early cowpea cultivation in the centre of diversity, there was early consensus regarding West Africa being the centre of origin and place of early domestication. However, later research using molecular markers has suggested that domestication may have instead occurred in East Africa and currently both the theories carry equal weight.

Vegetables occupy an important place in diversification of agriculture and have played a pivotal role in the food and nutritional security of every growing population of our country. Vegetables are becoming important as cash crops for urban and export markets. Looking at the national scenario, vegetables have tremendous strength in terms of natural and genetic resources. A large number of wild taxa and indigenous germplasm are available in the country and many of them have not being fully capitalized. Though efforts have been made to tap the variability present among the vegetable crops in the country and many varieties have been released, it needs further attention so that the problems of biotic and abiotic stresses can also be minimized. The vast diversity of land, soil and agro climatic conditions prevalent in India also offers a unique competitiveness to grow wide range of vegetables. During the last four decades, India has made commendable progress in vegetable production (from 23.45 million tonnes in 1961-65 to 166.47 million tonnes in 2015-16), securing the position of second largest production of vegetables in world next only to China. The total world vegetable production is 1159.88 million tonnes from an area of 59.16 million hectares. In this, India contributes about 15.88 % with the production equal to 166.47 million tonnes from an area of 9.29 million hectares (NHB, 2015-16).

Introduction

India has a long history in the cultivation of vegetable crops and it sustains the livelihood of a large section of population directly or indirectly. Vegetable crops offer high returns,  have a potential to alleviate the poverty of people, provide nutritional security and essential raw materials for agro industries. These crops also offer greater rural employment opportunity and have high potential for foreign exchange earning. India bestowed with varied soil and high climatic conditions has excellent potential for growing both tropical and temperate vegetables. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world after China. The total area under vegetables is estimated 5.9 million ha which contributes more than 2.5% of total cropped area. The production is estimated  90.83 milion tonnes. China having a production of about 278.59 million tonnes  is the largest producer of vegetable crops in the world. The annual growth rate in vegetables is of the order of 2.6%. Potato, brinjal, tomato, chilli, cabbage, onion, cauliflower,okra and peas are grown on commercial scale. West Bengal, Uttar Predesh, Bihar, Orissa and Karnataka are the leading vegetable producing states. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Andra Pradesh are the leading states in onion production where as West Bengal, Uttar Predesh and Bihar are the leading potato producing states. Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Assam are the leading brinjal producing states.

The purpose and the mode of marketing of vegetables determine the type of vegetable gardening. The various types of vegetable gardening are as follows.

Home or Kitchen gardening

Market gardening

Truck gardening

Processing gardening

Vegetable forcing

Seed production gardening

Floating vegetable gardening

Vegetables are grown on a limited scale in homesteads for family use and cultivated in an extensive scale for marketing. Depending on the purpose for which they are developed, vegetables gardens are classified into different types, viz., kitchen garden or nutrition garden, market garden, truck garden, garden for processing, garden for seed production and vegetable forcing or protected cultivation.

1. Kitchen garden or nutrition garden

Kitchen garden or home garden or nutrition garden is primarily intended for continuous supply of fresh vegetables for family use. A number of vegetables are grown in available land for getting a variety of vegetables. Most of works are done by family members. Area of garden, lay out, crops selected etc. depend on availability and nature of land. In rural area, land will not be a limiting factor and scientifically laid out garden can be established. In urban areas, land is a limiting factor and very often crops are raised in limited available area or in terraces of buildings. Cultivation of crops in pots or in cement bags is also feasible in cities.

The unique advantages of a kitchen garden or home garden are:

(i) Supply fresh fruits and vegetables high in nutritive value