eChapters

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Centre of origin is Peru, Bolivia, and South America in the Central Andean region.
• Introduced into India in early 17^th Century
• In India, cultivation of potato began first in Nilgiris in 1822.
• Mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnataka, Assam and Madhya Pradesh.
• Commercial potato species - Solanum andigenum - not very common. Plants are thin and long stem, small and narrow leaflets. Flowers more profuse, long stolons and mostly coloured deep eyed tubers.
• Solanum tuberosum: More common, plants shorter and thicker stem,

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Asia namely North West India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Western Tien Shan
• According to Vavilov (1951), it was originated in Pakistan.
• Jones and Mann (1963) stated that areas comprising Pakistan, Iran and mountain areas to the North India are primary centres of origin
• India is the second largest producer in the world, next to China and ranks third in export of onions, next to Netherlands and Spain.
• Maharashtra is the leading onion producing state in India, followed by Karnataka and Gujarat.
• Grown in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Bihar

1.2. Onion types in India

• Common onion (Allium cepa var. cepa) - Large bulbs born singly and propagated through seeds. Used as salad or in curries.
• Multiplier onion or potato onion (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) -Producing small bulbs, borne in clusters and generally propagated through small bulbs. Used for seasoning curries.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from wild non heading type, Cliff cabbage or Cole wort (Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris).
• Native to Mediterranean region.
• Three cultivated forms
  • Brassica oleracea var capitata f. alba- White cabbage
  • Brassica oleracea var capitata f. rubra- Red cabbage
  • Brassica oleracea var capitata f. sabauda- Savoy cabbage
• Major cabbage producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

1.2. Economic importance

• Contains all essential amino acids, particularly sulphur containing amino acids.
• Red cabbage is rich source of anthocyanin.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Also known as balsam pear or bitter cucumber.
• Old world origin and native of tropical Asia, particularly in Indo Burma region
• Widely grown in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and tropical Africa
• In India, it is cultivated in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

1.2. Economic importance

• Bitter gourd contains bitter principle (Glucoside) momordicin.
• Important vegetable in South Indian states, particularly in Kerala and grown for immature tuberculate fruits a unique bitter taste
• Fruits are
  • Rich source of vitamins and minerals

———————— is a thornless and seedless selection from Kagzi lime.

A. Pramalini            B. Vikram

C. Chakradhar        D. Jai devi

The storage life of fresh lemon at 10ºC is

A. 6-10 weeks           B. 10-15 weeks

C. 12-20 weeks        D. 12-16 weeks

Where is the Central Institute for Medicinal & Aromatic Plants situated at?

A. Srinagar        B. Bengaluru

C. Anand           D. Lucknow

The products of the plants which are used as food adjuncts to add taste only is called

A. Spices                   B. Medicinal plants

C. Aromatic plants     D. Condiments

The scientific horticulture consists of the following divisions. Among them, which division has impact on environment aesthetically and functionally

A. Fruits         B. Flowers

C. Spices       D. Plantations

India ranks ___________ in area and production of vegetables in the world.

A. First           B. Second

C. Third         D. Fourth

The practice of smoking the trees to induce off-season crops in mango is

A. Smudging      B. Bending

C. Ringing         D. Notching

Organic soils contain _____ % or more of organic matter.

A. 10       B. 15

C. 20      D. 30

Plant propagation by means of seed is called ________ propagation.

A. Sexual          B. Parthenocarpy

C. Asexual        D. Apomixis

The response of a plant to the relative length of day and night is called as

A. Photosynthesis      B. Phytochrome

C. Photoperiodism     D. Photo respiration

‘Hydroponics’ technique was first developed on commercial scale as early as in 1930 by

A. De. Condole             B. J.D. Hooker

C. W.F. Greicke            D. Hugo De Vries

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plants breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

Conservation of released varieties requires a sound scientific and technical basis. There are two main strategies for conserving agricultural biodiversity, namely ex-situ and in-situ conservation, both of which are equally important. In-situ conservation refers to the maintenance of a species in its natural habitat. Exsitu conservation is the conservation of components of biodiversity outside their natural habitats. It is conserved in the form of seeds (seed gene bank), live plants (field gene bank), tissues (tissue gene bank), pollens (pollen gene bank) and DNA materials (DNA bank). 

Agathi is a fast growing tree upto 10m. tall. Branching is drooping. The stem bark is deeply furrowing forming cork like plates. Leaves are compound, pinnae, 20 to 30 cm. long glabresence to pubescent. Leaflet oblong rounded 18 to 24 pairs of leaflets that are green to dark green mostly, bitter free. Inflorescence is a raceme 4 to 7 cm long and bearing 2 to 5 flowers that are white, red, yellowish and pink. Flowers are 5 to 10 cm long, 3cm wide, curved calyx bell shaped 2 cm long, 2 lobed, fine teeth like serration, fleshy. 

Leaves are alternate in distichous arrangement; lamina long and linear and leaf sheath covering the internodes; ligule membranous and auricle claw shaped. The inflorescence is a spike and florets are borne on rachis node. Each spikelet has three florets. In two row barely, lateral spikelets become sterile.

Molecular markers may be a short DNA sequence that flanks base pairs like SNP, a Single Nucleotude Polymorphism, small fragment or SSR Single Sequence Repeat or an extended site as in the case of microsatellites. Schematic representation of the SSR assay is shown in Fig. 1. Genetic markers have to be easily identified, linked to a specific locus and polymorphic. Molecular markers are subdivided into codominant monolocus and polyallelic markers and the second group contains dominant, polyallelic and biallelic markers. 

Deterioration of Crop varieties in their genetic endowments/qualities has been explained by Kadam (1942). Publication on maintenance and management of breeder seed production (Laverack 1991), and maintennce of self pollinated crop varieies (De Hanns 1953; Parlevliet 2007) explain in detail various aspects in maintenance of the seed quality.

Crop improvement is a continuous process. Crop improvement aims to genetically enhance, enrich and empower the crop plants with superior performance, enhanced yield level, higher quality of food, nutritional, fodder, energy produce and adaptability to climate change and crop growing environments. The intrinsic virtues of the improved cultivars could be sustained mainly through the production of the quality assured seeds endowed with genetic capabilities. The quality assured seed delivery system is through the seed chain from the basic seeds through Nucleus-Breeder-Foundation-Certified seed. Quality seed production system need to be based on genetic, breeding and seed technological protocols including field and laboratory testing to ensure very high genetic purity, true to type and superiority.

Synthetic seeds are also known as somatic seeds, artificial seeds, clonal seeds and synseeds. They are analogue for botanical seeds. Somatic embryoids which are tissue culture produced embyoids with bipolar structures, apical and basal meristematic regions which are capable of forming shoot and root respectively. Somatic embryoids are encapsulated and are used as artificial seeds possessing the ability to convert into plants in in vitro and ex vitro conditions. Artificial seeds are broadly two types.

Organically produced seeds are obtained by adapting the organic crop production system. Organic seed is a critical input but specialised efforts to produce organic seeds are not adequately and systematically followed. Accredited organic farming standards recognises the organic seed production as a prerequisite to organic farming. Seed health is important in organic seeds since seeds are not treated with chemical fungicides.

In vitro cloning is a vegetative propagation performed in the Plant Tissue Culture system. In vitro micropropagation cloning propagation is mostly applied to the vegetatively propagated plants and in particular in ornamental, fruit and in a few orchard crops and in vegetable crops besides in many forest tree species.

Micrografting is a method to produce virus free, viroid free and disease free grafts that are clonally propagated. This method is an aid to mass multiplication. In vitro grafting is applied to difficult to root clones. Micrografting is performed to understand incompatibility prediction between the two grafting partners, virus indexing, deduction of latent virus, safe germplasm exchange and to do grafting functions throughout the year. It is not season specific. Protocols for micrografting are available for almond, pistachia, olive, prunus, grape, mulberry, cashew, citrus, peach, pear, avocado, hazlenut, walnut, chestnut and grape fruit (Hussein et al., 2014).

Clonal crops belong to at least 34 families including herbs, shrubs, trees and vines. Clonal crop improvement dates back to 10,000 years ago. The diversity of clonal crops and their wild relatives are very significant but not yet fully understood and exploited. Many crops represent combination of sexual and clonal reproduction. Different parts of the clonal crops which may or may not be the same as consumed parts have been shaped as clonal propagules such as stem, setts, tuber, rhizome, corms and bulbs among others.

Genetic purity is the vital determinant in continuing the genetic integrity in seed from generation to generation. This is the basis of variety purity maintenance. The genetic purity depends upon the purity of the seeds planted. The genetic purity of the seeds planted must exceed or equal to the final product purity standards required as the purity generally decreases with subsequent generations of propagation. The improved varieties loose their identity and healthiness unless properly maintained. Maintenance selection can prevent the seed quality deterioration.

1. Seed is the key ingredient in establishment and expansion, diversification and improvement of crops/and crop husbandry.

2. Seed is the most effective and efficient means of crop propagation.

India had fourfold increase in population from 0.3 billion to 1.34 billion and registered a fivefold increase in food grain production from 50 million tons to
285 million tons in 2018 (Paroda, 2020). 

Symptoms of pale or yellow-green leaves (chlorosis) first occur in the older leaves. At the leaf margins reaching toward the midrib or central vein, reddish tints gradually emerge. The leaves are thin. Growth overall is markedly reduced. Deficiency results in rhizome yield loss.

Black nose is used for the unusually shrinking and darker date end. The most susceptible cultivars for this physiological state are Deglet Nour and Hayani. The black nose result is an over exam of the epidermis, in particular many little cross-sectional exams or ruptures near the end of the style of the foetus. There is a substantial shrinkage and darkening in proportion to the quantity of the controls and moist conditions on Khalaal level are related to them.

The presence of nuts in the kernel is known as stubborn nuts or seedless or imperfect nuts and is frequent in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). The nozzles impacted are oblong compared with the typical circular form of the nozzles and less than normal husk is generated. The often-breaking shell over the course of the development is the most typical feature of the barren nut. 

Little leaf of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is caused due to the deficiency of zinc. The leaves remain small in size giving rosette appearance.

Smaller leaves are produced and finally a rosette is formed. Internodal length reduction and apex-tapering of the stem. Most of the nuts are tiny and deformed, assuming they are produced. Drainage is poor and soil and pan/hard clay pan fertility are low.

An anomaly characterized by numerous leaves, short petioles and small laminae that offer a bushy appearance known as bushiness to some gerbera cultivars. The nodes are not clearly differentiated and no elongation of the internode is seen.

The calyx may be either half or entirely broken. The petals are stripped of their support, which contributes to the petals being bent down. The continuity of the form and arrangement of the flower is thus lost. Splitting, particularly where light and temperature fluctuate is correlated with weather. By maintaining the night temperature at 5 ° F, some reduction in splitting can be achieved. More calyx splits were caused by high plant density per unit area. 

Gladiolus is a fluoride pollution indicator plant, as it expresses the effects of fluorine at very low levels. Symptoms of scorching of the leaves look like drying of the tips of the leaves. A strong application of super phosphate is also associated with fluoride toxicity. By spraying 5 percent lime or Magnesium sulphate, it decreases

Leaves in the centres appear bleached and may have brown edges. Shade should be provided to reduce the light level to 1800-2500-foot candles to control this problem.

The normal blooming stem on the greenhouse rose has fully developed sepals, petals and reproductive organs. The inability to build a bloom at the apical end of the stem is a typical phenomenon which in such shoots is termed blind. There are sepals and petals; however, they are not complete or aborted in the reproductive portions.

Ordinarily, fruit bears a single crown, but fruit bears more than one in some cases. The top of the fruit will therefore be smooth and wide and the fruit will not be ideal for canning. These fruits have an insipid taste and are corky. It is intended to be an inherited character, often found in the Cayenne group to which the Kew variety belongs.

Fruit cracking is a serious problem of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) particularly in arid climate. Cracked fruits are sweet but unfit for long distance transportation. Incidence of cracked fruits varies from 10 to 70 % depending upon the prevailing environmental conditions. Longitudinal or radial splitting of rind surface occurs.

Fruit cracking is an important physiological disorder found in some commercial cultivars of Bael (Aegle marmelos), which occurs just before the ripening stage. It is correlated with abrupt changes, such as temperature and humidity, in weather conditions. Heavy irrigation or precipitation is also one of the causes of this disease after prolonged drought.

Internal necrosis has been observed in Aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) fruits. Francis cultivar, preceded by Banarsi, is highly susceptible. The symptoms begin with browning of the inner majority of the mesocarpic tissue in the 2nd or 3rd week of September at the time of endocarp hardening, which later spreads to the epicarp, resulting in brownish black flesh appearance. Internal fruit necrosis is associated with boron deficiency during the fruit development.

Twitching is a condition occurring predominantly on the surface of the fruit which is exposed to direct sunlight; however, it is not well understood what the source of the disease is. Growth in immature fruits cannot be detected during later stages of fruit maturity. On cv. Golden Solo Party there are a few examples. This is termed the “frog skin” or “fox skin.” It shows on the fruit’s surface as the Dark Brown Flecks. 

Bronzing is a complex nutritional condition in guava (Psidium guajava L.). It manifests in the interveinal tissue of older leaves as bronze or copper colour development, while terminal leaves remain green. This is attributable to the inadequacy of elements P, K and Zn. Bad management and low soil fertility coupled with soil acidity are often due to it.

This is primarily a physiological condition and, after heavy rains or heavy irrigation during hot weather, is mostly due to high atmospheric humidity. Two forms of splitting have been found, namely radial and transverse. There is more frequent radial cracking than transverse cracking. While splitting down to the inner core is very unusual, partial splitting is more prevalent.

It’s because it impacts the active development of the plant at a low temperature. Yellowing of the leaves and severe destruction of the tissue. In cases of flowering plants, the stalk carrying the bunches freely lengthens and drapes down the complete inflorescence.

In grape growing areas in many parts of the world this illness is a very popular disorder. In this disorder, a bold beer is surrounded by shoot berries, and the name of the hen and of the chicken disorder is like a hen, as bold berry and chicken. The fruit has a sour taste. The signs are the death of rising tips, falling leaves and the fragility of new shoots. With the development of interveinal chlorosis between the edges, the leaves may be deformed, and this is particularly evident after fruiting.

In the flesh of the fruit, tiny, 2-10 mm (depending on the cultivar) brown blemishes form. Below the surface, the tissue gets black and corky. At harvest or after cold storage, the skin develops depressed patches on the surface. These tend to develop as water-soaked patches on the skin around the calyx. Overall, these patches became darker and sunken than the skin around and developed entirely after one to two months in storage.