eChapters

Previous year questions

1. Introduction?

2. Role of private? Introduction

• The Indian seed industry used to be dominated by public sector seed companies. However, following the easing of government regulations and the implementation of a new seed policy in 1988, the private sector seed companies have started playing a major role in seed development and marketing.

• More recently, the government’s decision to embrace biotechnology as a means of achieving food security has attracted several leading biotechnology-focused multinational seed companies to India.

• The composition of the seed industry, by volume of turnover, has reportedly reached a ratio of 60:40 between the private and public sectors.

Previous Year Questions

1. What is DNA fingerprinting? Discuss the applied aspects in modern agriculture. (15M, CSE 2021)

• The term DNA fingerprinting in its original sense refers to the method developed in 1985 by Sir Alec Jeffreys (Jeffreys et al., 1985) and his associates for the simultaneous detection of highly variable DNA fragments by hybridisation of specific multilocus probes to electrophoretically separated restriction fragments?

• The DNA fingerprints, resembling barcodes, are unique to the individual and hence can be used in much the same way as conventional fingerprints - to identify individuals with absolute certainty?

DNA Fingerprinting Techniques

• A large number of fingerprinting techniques are in currency, which are variations and combinations of restriction fragmentation and polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

• Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) involves digesting DNA with restriction enzymes, separating the resultant DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis, blotting the fragments to a filter and hybridising probes to the separated fragments. Specific probe-enzyme combinations give highly reproducible patterns.

• With the advent of PCR technology a number of simpler techniques have become available for molecular characterisation.

• These include, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and its several variants, intersimple sequence repeats (ISSR), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and sequence tagged microsatellites sites (STMS).

Previous Year Questions

1. Different Classes of Seeds?

2. Various parameters of field & seed standards for breeder seed production?

3. Factors that affect the longevity of seeds during storage in warehouses?

4. Initial Seed Quality?

5. Seed Testing?

Different Classes of Seeds

1. Nucleus Seed: It is handful of seed maintained by concerned breeder for further multiplication. The nucleus seed will have all the characters that the breeder has placed in it and it is of highest genetic purity. The quantity of nucleus seed is in kilograms.

2. Breeder Seed (BS): Breeder seed is a seed or vegetative propagating material directly controlled by the originating or sponsoring plant breeder of the breeding programme or institution and or seed whose production is personally supervised by a qualified plant breeder and which provides the source for the initial and recurring increase of foundation seed. Breeder seed is exempted from certification. However, the breeder seed crop is being inspected at appropriate stages by a Monitoring Team consisting of breeder, representative of NSC and representative of Seed Certification Agency. The breeder seed lots are affixed with Golden Yellow tags. The genetic purity of breeder seed crop should be maintained at 100 per cent.

Previous Year Questions

1. What is seed treatment?

2. Factors affecting the seed quality of a crop during seed production?

3. Seed treatment campaign – Role & importance?

4. Agronomic and genetic principles of quality seed production?

5. Varietal seed production and hybrid seed production?

Seed Treatment

Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or both to the seeds to disinfect(deep seated) and disinfest (over seed coat) them from seed borne or soil borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to subjecting the seed to solar energy exposure or immersion in conditional water.

Principle of ICP Optical Emission Spectrometry

The ICP is a partially ionized gas (mostly Ar) plasma produced in a quartz torch using a 1–2.5 kW radio frequency power supply. Samples are typically introduced into the center of the plasma as aerosols. Compared to the atomic absorption spectrophotometers, in which the excitation temperature of the air acetylene flame measures 2000–3000 “K, the excitation temperature of the argon ICP is 7000–10,000 K, which efficiently excites many elements. The solution for analysis is carried by a peristaltic pump through a nebulizer into a spray chamber, where aerosol is produced by the argon gas. The aerosol thus generated is directed into the central channel of the plasma. The plasma in ICP is generated at the end of a quartz torch by a water-cooled induction coil through which a high-frequency alternate current flows. Consequently, an alternate magnetic field is induced, which accelerates electrons into a circular trajectory. Due to the collision between the argon atoms and the electrons, ionization occurs, giving rise to stable plasma. At the core of argon plasma, the temperature is sustained at approximately 10,000 K, where aerosols are quickly vaporized. Subsequently, atomization and ionization of the sample analyte elements take place. Due to the thermic energy taken up by the electrons, they reach a higher “excited” state. When the electrons drop back to ground level, energy is liberated as light (photons). Each element has its own characteristic emission spectrum. By means of an Echelle grating, a prism, and a focusing mirror, these emitted photons at various frequencies are captured simultaneously by the suitable detectors. The wavelength of the photons can be used to identify the elements from which they originate.

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. However, the average productivity of fruits in India could be higher compared to many developed countries. The main reasons for low productivity are old and senile orchards, low-yielding varieties, poor orchard management, and inadequate technological upgradation and adoption by the growers. Presently, due to urbanization and population explosion, there is a continuous decline in the availability of cultivable land; rising energy and land costs, together with the increased demand for horticultural produce, have given thrust to the concept of high-density planting (HDP) in fruit crops. However, at the same time, it is now realized that there is limited scope for a quantum jump in fruit production in traditional areas. Therefore, the alternative is to expand under non-traditional regions like arid and semi-arid areas of the country. India’s hot arid and semi-arid regions are spread mainly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab, and Haryana. The vast land resources offer an excellent opportunity for fruit production in the Indian arid zone, which is spread over about 31.70 m ha, of which 41.50% is arable and 19% is a cultivable wasteland (Table 1).

Introduction

The term horticulture first appeared in English literature in 1678 in the treatise “The New World of English” authored by E. Phillips in London. In ancient scriptures, the garden is mentioned in Vatsayan. During the ancient period, gardens were the sole means of recreation, leisure, and pleasure. The planting of trees was undertaken for the purpose of shade, shelter, and fruits. It is quoted the queen of Raja Dashrath made a question that “What is the meaning of planting trees and garden”. Raja Dasharath responds that “the very meaning of planting trees and taking fruit plantation is the shade and fruits to the passersby”

Horticulture accounts for about 30% of India’s GDP from 13.08% of the cropped area. It stands for about 37.1% of the total export of agricultural commodities. The country shares about 13.6% of the fruit production and 14% of vegetable production (Indian Hortic Database, 2014). Horticulture shares for more than 33% of agricultural production. The horticultural production touched the mark of 300.64 million tonne during 2016–2017 which marks the sixth straight year horticultural production outstripping that of food grain production estimated at 276 million tonne in 2016–2017. It stands witness to structural changes in Indian agriculture in which the farmers have increasingly adopted the cultivation of commercial horticultural crops due to increasing market demand and quicker cash flow.

Introduction

Modern-day agriculture and civilization together demand increased production of food to feed the global population. New technologies and solutions are being applied in the agricultural domain to provide an optimal alternative to gathering and processing information while enhancing net productivity. At the same time, the alarming climate change and increasing water crisis demand new and improved methodologies for modern-age agricultural and farming f ields. Automation and intelligent decision-making are also becoming more important to accomplish this mission in flower production. In this regard, the Internet of Things (IoT) ubiquitous computing, wireless ad-hoc and sensor networks, radio frequency identifier, cloud computing, remote sensing, etc. technologies are becoming increasingly popular.

Most of the IoT-based applications are targeted for various applications. For example, IoT for environmental condition monitoring with information on soil nutrients are applied to predict crop health and production quality over time. Irrigation scheduling is predicted with IoTs by monitoring the soil moisture and weather conditions. The world’s first IoT device was invented in the early 1980s at Carnegie Melon University.

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR) was established in 1976 in New Delhi by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The mandate of the Bureau was to act as a nodal institute for the acquisition and management of indigenous and exotic plant genetic resources (PGR) for agriculture and to carry out related research and human resources development for sustainable growth of agriculture. As we know our country is a mega-diverse country with 2.4% of the land area, accounting for 7.8% of the recorded species of the world spread over 45,968 (11.18% of world) species of plants and 91,212 species of animals (7.43% of the world) that were documented in its 10 bio-geographic regions. India shares four biodiversity hotspots, namely Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, the Himalayas, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland, and one third of our species of higher plants are endemic. Out of 45,968 plant species, 5150 are endemic and distributed in 141 genera under 47 families, corresponding to about 30% of the world’s recorded flora, which means 30% of the world’s recorded flora is endemic to India. The plant genetic resources are fundamental to human welfare and their effective management is a crucial for conservation of genetic variability. As of today, ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR), New Delhi, India has conserved about 4.6 lakh accessions of 1900 species in its gene bank, and about 6900 accessions of intermediate species have been conserved in cryobank. The Bureau not only conserve PGR safely to meet the needs of future generations but also provides these to the nation’s crop improvement programs to sustain continued advances in agricultural productivity and stabilize production. ICAR-NBPGR is the nodal agency for import and export of all PGR for research purpose, adhering to guidelines of National Biodiversity Act, 2002.

Water is a critical input for agricultural production and plays an important role in food security. Irrigated agriculture represents 20% of the total cultivated land and contributes 40% of the total food produced worldwide. Irrigated agriculture is, on average, at least twice as productive per unit of land as rainfed agriculture, thereby allowing for more production intensification and crop diversification. India has 18% of world’s population, having 4% of the world’s fresh water, out of which 80% is used in agriculture. India receives an average of 4000 billion cubic meters of precipitation every year. However, only 48% of it is used in India’s surface and groundwater bodies. In India, more than 60% population is still dependent directly or indirectly on agriculture. Most of the available water (more than 90%) is used in agriculture. From 1951 to 1997, gross irrigated areas expanded fourfold from 23 million ha to over 90 million ha, and irrigation continues to be the largest water user. The water availability in India is going to be worse as the agriculture-important states like Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are facing a steady fall in underground water table, and per capita availability of water fall from 3450 cubic meter (1951) to 1250 cubic meter (1999).

Introduction

Salinity is a significant abiotic stress faced by plants, particularly in semi-arid and arid regions of the world, where annual evaporation exceeds precipitation. In addition, approximately half of all the world’s irrigated areas are subjected to secondary salinization, alkalization, and waterlogging. About 8.85 million ha of land in India is degraded due to salinity and alkalinity problems. Besides the naturally occurring salt-affected soils, the extent of man-made salinized soil is also significant. Salt accumulation in the root zone layers of soils becomes a major constraint to agricultural productivity. However, such lands can effectively be utilized for salt-tolerant biological systems.

To survive under high salt concentrations, some plant species evolved well adapted morphological and physiological characteristics, allowing them to proliferate in saline environments. These species are known as halophytes. Halophytes constitute a small fraction of total plant species; they represent a wide diversity of plant forms and habitats and are of immense significance in expanding salinity problems and decreasing freshwater supply for agriculture. These salt-tolerant species possess enormous taxonomical plant forms and habitat diversity. Taxonomically, the species belonging to Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Asteraceae families constitute a significant share of salt tolerant species of north-western hot arid regions of India. In the herbaceous plant group, the species of the family Poaceae are most abundant. In the case of woody perennials, Chenopodiaceae, Tamaricaceae, and Salvadoraceae families are essential as true halophyte and facultative halophyte species.

Introduction

Despite environmental, bio-physical, and resource constraints in most parts of Rajasthan, even though the state’s geography can be classified into three distinct climatic zones: hot arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid, from a horticultural perspective. These diverse zones have excellent vegetable production potential, a wide range of crop plants, and varied opportunities for resource utilization. However, extremes of high (March–October) and low (December–January) temperature situations associated with abiotic stresses in arid regions restrict the choice of crops and their genotypes, quality of product, and productivity levels. Thus, vegetable exploitation with adaptive and native crop plants is generally found to be most productive and stable under the dry-land climate of the state that receives 150–650 mm of rain and has problems from abiotic factors owing to climatic variability, extremes in temperatures, drought, frost, hot and cold winds, and soil and water quality.

Vegetable production in the country is largely uneven and concentrated, mainly in the limited states and areas where the climate is much more favorable and mild for their production. In addition, emphasis is given only to the few numbers of vegetables that are grown with high inputs and irrigations. To meet the increasing vegetable demand and utilization of indigenous resources, there is the utmost need for massive and integrated efforts with unconventional, under-scored, and perennial vegetable production. The increase in vegetable production can be achieved first by developing high-yielding crop genotypes suited to the prevailing conditions of the targeted zones and resource-based technologies under climatic variability. The second approach is to exploit native resources, i.e., varied and untapped land-areas and under-scored horticultural species with vegetable potentialities.

The hot arid regions of India are spread over an area of about 31.7 million ha, mainly in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, which inhabit an average of 61 people per square km, making up a population of nearly 20 million people. The Indian arid zone is characterized by high temperature and low and variable precipitation, which limit the scope for high horticultural productivity. However, these conditions greatly favor the development of high-quality production in a number of fruits, such as date palm, ber, pomegranate, citrus, aonla, bael, grapes, and guava. The optimized technologies and inputs could increase the existing low productivity. It is now realized that there is a limited scope for a quantum jump in fruit and vegetable production in the traditional production areas. The amelioration of the extreme conditions is also considered vital for the life support of the inhabitants of this area. The recent awareness regarding the potential of these ecologically fragile lands for the production of quality horticultural produce has not only opened up the scope for providing economic sustenance for the people of this region but also for bringing new areas to increase production through horticulture. The scope of expanding water supplies through the development of water resources is very limited since suitable dam sites are fewer, development costs are prohibited, and environmental concerns are too strong. This has led to the realization that saving on the use of water is an option for expanding the water supply.

Introduction

Stress is any unfavorable condition for a plant’s normal growth and development. In the case of crop plants, such adverse conditions are caused by biological (biotic) and non-biological (abiotic) environmental factors. Abiotic stress is the negative impact of non-living factors on living plants in a specific environment. Usually, abiotic stress is unavoidable, and we can only go for its management.

The most basic stresses include:

• Extreme (high/low) temperatures

• Soil-chemical properties

• Water deficiency

• Excessive moisture

• Element toxicity or deficiency

Salt-affected soils (SASs) are an important ecological entity in world agriculture. It varies with time and space depending on soil, rainfall, irrigation, microtopography, groundwater quality, and depth. Weathering of rocks and minerals, higher rates of evapotranspiration, deposition of wind-blown salt sediments, and seawater ingress are the significant factors contributing to the formation of SASs. Large acreage in canal-irrigated tracts of arid and semi arid areas, which suffers from water logging, is also responsible for secondary salinization. According to an estimate, about 33% of irrigated lands worldwide are affected by varying salinity and sodicity. Other reasons other than improper irrigation that cause soil salinization include deforestation, which results in salt resettling at upper and lower levels, chemical contamination, and air-borne and water-borne salts from industrial outpouring. In addition to soil salinity, the problem of poor-quality water would also significantly increase in the foreseeable future due to planned expansion in irrigated areas and intensive use of natural resources to fulfill the increasing population’s food and other livelihood requirements. Groundwater salinity under irrigated agricultural lands may or may not increase over time. The groundwater salinity will remain the same if the natural river water is used for irrigation. However, if the irrigation water is polluted and contains salts, the salinity of groundwater may show an increasing trend. The rate at which groundwater salinity may increase would depend upon the quality and quantity of recharge water, the depth of the hardpan/barrier layer under the groundwater table, and the substrate’s porosity.

Introduction

The Indian arid zone, which occupies 38.7 million hectares in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, is characterized by low and erratic rainfall with a coefficient of variation fluctuating from 40 to 70% and extremes of temperature (1–48º C), poor-quality underground water, high wind velocity, and sandy soils. These vast land resources are blessed with rich agro-biodiversity despite all these aberrations that support the high human and livestock populations and have beneficial climatic conditions for producing quality fruits and vegetables. Recently, the immense potential of arid horticulture has been realized, and the area under cultivation of arid crops is increasing enormously. The production also increases with the increased cultivated area, which opens up the probability of establishing a market glut with underutilized foods.

Arid Fruits and Vegetables

Arid and semi-arid regions of the country are blessed with a variety of horticultural crops such as date palm, bael, aonla, pomegranate, fig, mulberry, Jamun, ker, karonda, lasora, wood apple, ber, bordi, khejri, kachri, snap melon, drumstick, cluster bean, and methi. Most of these crops are highly perishable and cannot be stored for extended periods due to uncongenial atmospheric conditions such as high temperatures and low relative humidity.

Seed is the basis of agriculture. It is the cheapest and most critical input for sustainable crop production. The response of all other inputs depends upon the quality of the seed to a large extent. The direct contribution of quality seed alone to crop production is about 15 to 20%, and it can be further raised to 45% with improved crop management practices. Quality seed ensures good germination and vigorous growth, resulting in a good crop stand. The Green Revolution witnessed in the country during the mid-sixties resulted from the seed revolution in wheat and rice. After that, there was a consistent increase and record production in food grains, oilseeds, pulses, and all other crops, including fruits and vegetables, due to the development of high-yielding varieties.

The seed itself is a technology that is inherited in a capsulated form. Therefore, the seed sector plays an essential role in disseminating the most recent technology to farmers through the quality seed of high-yielding varieties. The success of any developmental program in agriculture, like NFSM, RKVY, oilseed mission, horticulture mission, etc., depends upon the availability of good quality seed and planting material. Seed security is a prerequisite for food and nutritional security. Therefore, recognizing the facts, many emphases are being given to seed replacement and varietal replacement rates. The growth of the Indian seed industry is faster than the global rate.

Introduction

Ber belongs to the family Rhamnaceae, which consists of about 45 genera and 950 species. Out of 950, the genus Ziziphus consists of about 80 species of evergreen and deciduous climbers, shrubs, and trees found in the old world tropics, subtropics, and warmer temperate regions. The fruits of almost all species are edible, and jujube (Z. jujuba Mill.) and ber (Z. mauritiana Lamk.) are cultivated commercially. Liu and Cheng (1995) believed that the Indo Malaysia region (South and South East Asia) is the center of both the evolution and distribution of the genus Ziziphus.

Ber is the most common fruit of arid and semi-arid parts of the world due to its hardy nature and wild adaptability to soil and climatic conditions. It survives and produces economically viable yield in the hyper-arid zone where most of the trees fail to grow due to lack of moisture, extreme temperature, and poor soil conditions. It performs well under saline and alkaline soil conditions. It can produce economically viable yield with moderately saline irrigation water. Ber can withstand extreme heat but is susceptible to frost. Furthermore, due to its deep root system and other xerophytic characteristics, it is extremely drought tolerant but requires adequate soil moisture during fruit development. While high atmospheric humidity is unsuitable for ber cultivation, low humidity during fruit development improves fruit quality.

Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an important fruit crop in arid and semi arid regions. In India, it is grown commercially in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. India is one of the largest producers of pomegranate in the world. During 2020–2021, pomegranate was cultivated over 2.71 lakh ha with an annual production of 30.88 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 11.39 tonnes/ ha in India. Maharashtra is the leading state, with 63% of the area and 62% of total production. In India, pomegranate is available throughout the year (January–December). India has the largest area of pomegranate cultivation globally.

Pomegranate can tolerate heat, drought, and moisture deficit. The area under pomegranate cultivation in India is increasing daily due to its high demand, hardy nature, low cost of cultivation, high yields, better storage quality, and therapeutic values. It has enormous medicinal and nutritional value and is one of the richest sources of antioxidants. Several processed products such as juices, squash, jelly, anardana, and mouth fresheners are prepared by fruit processing. The fruit is mainly used as an ingredient in cooling and refrigerant mixtures and in the preparation of juice, concentrates, condiments, and pastes. The juice is highly nutritious and is recommended for patients suffering from gastric troubles. It contains 16.5% TSS and 0.33% acidity; total sugars, 13.93; reducing sugars, 13.60 and non-reducing sugars, 0.33%; and 9.27 mg/100 g ascorbic acid.

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. As per the National Horticulture Database (3rd Advance Estimate), the area under cultivation of fruits is 6.914 million hectares with a production of 103.027 million tonnes. Mango (34.71%) ranks 1st in the area, followed by citrus (15.42%), banana, and grapes (2.14%), standing in the 9th position. Likewise, Mango (22.4%) occupies the 2nd position in production, followed by Citrus (12.89%) and Grapes, sharing around 3%. Underutilized fruit crops, such as aonal, bael, ber, Jamun, and tamarind, and minor fruit crops like phalsa, karonda ker, salvadora, etc., are grown in drier tracts of the country, including the arid region. Some of the crops introduced as non-traditional crops have revolutionized the fruit industry in India. Although the total acreage of cultivation and production of fruit crops has accelerated annually, the productivity of fruit crops has been on a declining trend due to several factors impacted by abiotic stresses. Since plants’ first line of defense lies in the roots, the success or failure of orcharding enterprises depends upon rootstocks.