eChapters

Weight loss: For grains or grain legumes in the tropics, a weight loss in the range of 10-30 per cent might be expected over a full storage season.

Loss in quality/market value: Infested seed is contaminated with insect debris and has increased dust content. Seeds are holed and often discoloured, which fetch low price.

Promotion of mould development: In humid conditions, without adequate ventilation, mould development and caking can spread rapidly, causing severe losses.

Reduced germination in seed material: Damage to the embryo of the seed will usually prevent germination. Some storage pests prefer to attack the embryo.

1. NEMATODES

Nematodes, also called eel-worms, are wormlike in appearance, but quite distinct taxonomically from true worms. They live freely in fresh or salt water or in soil. They are saprozoic and also parasitize animals (including man) and plants. Many species of nemotdes parasitize higher plants and cause disease symptoms. Plant parasitic nematodes are small (invisible to the naked eye), long, tubular, round in the cross section, unsegmented and smooth invertebrates. They inhibit different parts of plants, namely, roots, stem, flower buds and seeds. Depending on the host-parasite relationship, plant parasitic nematodes may be sedentary or migratory and ectoparasitic and/or endoparasitic in their feeding habits.

1.1. Nematodes

Seed-borne nematodes may be internal or may occur as seed infestation. Several saprozoic soil nematodes occur in beds of soil mixed with seed. Seed infestation by nematodes does not produce any specific symptoms on seed, but in those that occur as endoparasites, the floral structure may be modified into a seed gall (Anguina spp.) may produce symptoms such as discoloration of testa in groundnut (Ditylenchus destructor) or may be symptomless as in paddy kernels infected by Aphelenchoides besseyi. Neergaard (1979) listed five genera - Anguina, Aphelenchoides, Ditylenchus, Heterodora and Rhadinaphelenchus - that are seed-transmitted. Heterodora and Rhadinaphelenchus occur as endoparasites in roots, stems, and leaves. The latter also affects the growing apex, inflorescence and husks of dropped nuts.

1. SEED INDUSTRY BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

The Royal Commission on Agriculture (RCA) constituted in 1925 suggested the following for seed improvement

There should be a separate organization within agriculture departments to deal with seed distribution and seed testing.

The seed distribution enterprise should be self-sustaining.

Seed distribution should be organized through co-operatives, other associations, seed merchants (whenever they are available), through seed agents, as well as through agricultural department staff and any other agency which could be considered suitable.

Seed merchants of proven enterprise should be given every encouragement.

1. DEFINITION

Seed marketing is the one of the most vital components of seed technology. On it depends the size and scope of the seed industry. Broadly it includes such activities as production, processing, storage, quality control and marketing of seeds.

Seed marketing refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery and sales promotional activities.

1. PPV & FR ACT

With the signing of TRIPs agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO), India has agreed to provide protection to plant varieties. The Government of India, therefore, enacted “ The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPV&FR Act)” in 2001 and the Regulations for implementing the Act were formulated in 2003.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, has been identified as the nodal agency for implementing the PPV& FR Act through an Authority known as “The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer Rights Authority”. The Authority came into force in November, 2005.

PPV & FR act has 11 chapters, 4 schedules and 97 sections.

1. DUS TEST

A variety shall express distinct character(s) for verification, uniformity within population and stability for expression of such characters over the year and at different locations, then only its genetic purity is confirmed.

1.1. Requirements

Authentic seeds of existing varieties, pure seeds of variety under tests, list of characters to be examined and their expression.

This test is conducted in the most optimum conditions of soil and climate and the crop is exposed to the best agronomic management conditions to ensure full expression of the characters.

1.2. Distinctness

The variety under test is compared with the existing varieties (having similar plant height, growth habit, days to flowering, days to maturity and reaction to diseases) for qualitative morphological characters at seed, seedling and plant levels. Biochemical differences may also be considered. To establish the distinctness, the test is performed for 2 years for self pollinated crops.

Horticulture deals with the art, science, business and technology of cultivation and management of horticultural plants. The word Horticulture is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ (means garden) and ‘Culture’ (means growing). Horticulture is an aesthetic science that deals with cultivation of fruit, vegetable, spice, plantation, medicinal, aromatic and flower crops. There is a vast therapeutic use of horticulture wherein gardening and aroma therapy are used to deal with new age maladies like depression and various addictions.

In ancient times, huge gardening spaces to grow large number of fruits, vegetables and flowers were available and these areas were demarcated with the help of high walls. This enclosed area was referred to as garden. This led to the term garden culture. The land area is decreasing due to industrialization and population growth, at the same time, there is a drastic increase in demand for horticultural produce. To meet the increased demand for horticultural produce and to cope up with the space constraints, multitier cropping systems, vertical gardening and other intensive cultivation practices are being resorted to. Hence, horticulture may also be described as the “Practice of growing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner”.

Presently, fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals are grown not only within the home premises, but also in large quantities on a commercial scale. In other words, many horticultural crops throughout the world are grown primarily as business enterprises. Thus, horticulture has two aspects in general i.e., the amateur and the professional. In addition, with the establishment of horticultural experiment stations as an integral part of colleges and universities, comparatively a large amount of scientific information on the behaviour and cultivation of horticultural plants and products is freely available. This information or literature, constitutes the science of horticulture, and the application of this scientific information constitutes the “Technology of Horticulture.” Thus, present day horticulture may be defined as the science and technology of production, processing and merchandising of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals where each crop has its own science and technology. Consequently, horticulture may appear differently to different people. To a teacher, professor, research scientist, extension official and landscape architect, it is an applied science and a profession, while to a commercial producer, wholesaler, a retailer of horticultural products, or to the manufacturers or seller of horticultural products, it is a business. It is also a fascinating hobby for connoisscur.

Horticulture is a wide field and includes a great variety and diversity of crops. In general, these crops are classified as follows:

1. Crops grown for the food and/or vitamin and mineral content, for e.g., apple and sweet potato.

2. Crops grown for their beverage properties, for e.g., tea and coffee.

3. Crops grown to beautify the environment, for e.g., the grasses of the well planned lawn.

4. Crops grown to express sentiments, for e.g., cut roses, jasmine.

5. Crops grown for perfume for e.g., rose, jasmine.

6. Crops grown for spices for e.g., pepper, nutmeg.

The Horticultural crops show wider adaptation and therefore exact delineation of the agro-climatic areas specific to each crops is not possible, except for the typical temperate and tropical species. However, our country can be broadly divided into seven zones for horticultural crops as indicated below:

1. Temperate Northern Region

Comprising of states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Temperate fruits, cool season vegetables are the important horticultural crops in the zone.

2. North Western Arid Region

Comprising ofthe entire Rajasthan state, Gujarat and parts ofPunjab & Haryana. Arid fruit crops like ber, pomegranate, amla, date palm, wood apple and seed spices like coriander, cumin, fennel occupy major area in this zone.

3. North Eastern Sub-tropical Humid Region

Comprising of states and union territories like Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Fruit crops like banana, pineapple, citrus, jack besides plantation crops like tea and large cardamom are also grown here.

The Government of India has established boards for important crops. The boards are statutory bodies which help in guiding the production and export. The main objectives for setting up the boards are -

To monitor and promote the export of primary items.

To empower the producers by providing trainings and close guidance.

To conduct research to improve the commodity, e.g. Central Coffee Research Institute, Coir Research Institute etc.

To advise the government on policy matters such as price fixing, fixing quota for export and signing trade agreements.

To promote the commodity by opening offices and outlets in India and abroad.

To showcase the commodity by participating in trade fairs and exhibitions.

A number of tools, implements and machineries are used in cultivation of horticultural crops to make every operation easy and efficient. There are a number of operations involved in cultivation of horticultural crops, like making of nursery, propagation of plant material, field ploughing, breaking of clods, levelling, making bunds, sowing and planting, plant protection, training, pruning, harvesting, lawn mowing etc. All these operations are physically taxing and cannot be carried out efficiently without proper tools, implements and machineries. Following are some important tools -

1. Bill hook: To cut and remove big sized unwanted branches of trees.

2. Buckets and plastic pots: used in the orchard for spraying, transport water, carry harvested produce etc.

3. Budding and grafting knife: The budding and grafting operations in propagation of many horticultural plants are carried out using budding and grafting knife.

4. Country plough: Used in field preparation for ploughing the soil, incorporation of organic manures into the soil at the time of last ploughing, summer ploughing in conserving of soil moisture.

5. Crow bar: Used to loosen the soil, digging and deepening the pits and channels.

6. Dibbler: Used to make holes and sow the seeds in the nursery as well as in the main field.

7. Digging fork: It is of a great use in harvesting the tuber crops without damaging the produce.

The performance of plants is affected by the soil in which it grows and climate and micro climate of its surroundings.

Impact of soil

The soil provides anchorage, nutrients and water for plant growth. Soil fertility status, structure and texture influence the plant growth and productivity.

Classification of soil

On the basis of the organic and inorganic contents and particle size and texture, the soils have been classified. The inorganic matter in the soil constitutes of varying amount of sand, silt and clay, on the basis of which the soils are classified as follows.

Sandy soil

These soils have coarse textured and large pore spaces, have poor water holding capacity. Retention of nutrients in this soil is very poor. This type of soil is suitable for precocious crops. Sandy soils initiate rapid root growth, hence good as propagating medium. Since sandy soils has low in nutrient content, supplementation of adequate nutrition is imperative to achieve good plant growth.

Nutrient management is one of the key aspects that ensure good quality produce in optimum quantity. Nutrient availability influences growth and productivity of crops. Sixteen elements are recognized as essential nutrients for growth and development of plants. These essential elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine. While carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are derived from air, soil and water, other elements are taken by the plant roots from the soil, according to the requirement of the plant. The soil contains these elements in varying quantities depending on the origin of the soil. According to the quantity of requirement of these elements by plants for its various growth processes,the elements are classified into different categories.

Major nutrients or primary nutrients - These are required by plants in large quantities because they are involved in all the processes of plant growth and development. Major nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Secondary nutrients - These are required by plants in relatively smaller quantities for growth and development. Secondary nutrients are magnesium and sulphur.

Micro nutrients - As the name suggests, these are required by plants in minor quantities for their physiological processes. These elements are iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine.

Each of the plant nutrients has a definite quantitive role and specific function in the physiological processes of plants. If any of the essential element is deficient or absent in the soil sysem, the plant growth is affected negatively and this is reflected as inferior quality produce. On the contrary, if a nutrient is excess in the soil system, it hinders in absorption of other nutrients and also may itself be toxic. Hence to get the required growth, quality and quantity of the produce, optimum availability of all the nutrients should be ensured.

Water is an extremely essential component in plant growth and development. It is of utmost importance for photosynthesis, cell division, cell growth / elongation, respiration, nutrient uptake, mineral utilization and much other metabolic process, which directly affect the quantity and quality of the produce. Hence quantity and quality of water play a vital role in performance of a crop. A well distributed water supply, throughout the growth of plant is essential. Rainfall is the major source of water for the crops. Rainfall recharges the surface water resources such as rivers, streams and ponds and also the ground water resources like wells.

Different crops are grown in a field. Any plant growing in a place where it is not desired competing with the main crops, has to be weeded out and such plants are called ‘weed’.

Effect of weed menace The weeds

Reduce crop yield and production efficiency. It competes with the main economical crop for space, water and nutrients.

Reduce crop quality.

Hamper intercultural operations.

Reduce crop quality.

Obstruct the flow of water in the irrigation channels.

Exert allelopathic effect on crops.

Harbour insect and pests, which affect the main crop of interest.

Increase the cost of production.

Plant propagation techniques refer to the methods by which the plants are multiplied and increased in number.

Methods of Propagation

i) Sexual Method of Propagation - Seeds are used as propagating material.

ii) Asexual Methods of Propagation - Plant parts, other than seeds are used for plant propagation.

Pot mixture is the media, used in the pots for propagation of nursery plants. It is the combination of different materials in a particular proportion to create better environment for rooting, growth and development of plants.

The most commonly used ingredients to make potting mixture areas follows

An orchard is the place where different kinds of fruit crops are grown in large scale. An orchard is a long-term investment and needs lot of planning and expertise. The orchard crops are generally trees, which ultimately have a large spread, so when they are planted, the distance between plants and rows is kept keeping in mind the final spread of the tree. So, before the trees attain their full growth, some suitable crops which are of short duration, like vegetables, flowers, spices and herbs are grown as intercrops.

Fruit trees are perennial, may be tropical, sub tropical and temperate types and thus require proper environmental conditions and suitable management practices for their successful growth.

Training and pruning of horticultural crops is very important practice to obtain a strong frame work of tree and sustained productivity. It is necessary to understand the various terms used to make the subject more comprehendible.

Crotch: It is the angle made by the scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to the scaffold limb.

Head: The point on the trunk from which first branch arises.

Leader: It is the main stem growing from ground level up to the tip dominating all other branches.

Low head trees: Trees in which scaffold branches arise within 60-70 cm height from the ground level.

High head trees: Trees in which the scaffold branch arise 120 cm above the trunk.

Scaffold branches: The main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.

The types of crops and the practices used to grow them and the sequence in which they are grown altogether refers to cropping system. It comprises of all components required for the crop production and their relationships with the environment. Traditionally the cropping systems aim at maximizing the per unit area productivity, which can be done by growing improved high yielding varieties, by adequate and scientific crop management practices and by increasing cropping intensities with the help of different cropping patterns.

In today’s world cropping system should produce more, at the same time the practices should be ecologically and environmentally sustainable. There should be efficient utilization of land and water. It should be designed to conserve soil, soil moisture and improve soil resilience.

The term growth refers to an irreversible increase in size and weight of the plant. It normally reflects an increase in protoplasm, which may occur through increase in size of the cell and number of cells. Hence, the process of cell elongation and cell division provides the basis for growth. Cell division and enlargement are complicated processes involving synthesis of many organic compounds such as protein, cellulose and nucleic acid, besides the physical force required, which results in cell enlargement. The growth of the whole plant is compartmentalized into areas called ‘meristem’ where cell division and cell elongation are localized. The meristem cells such as shoot apex, root apex, cambium and the intercalary zones undergo repeated mitosis resulting in replication of DNA and nuclear material and finally the cell mass increases. Adjacent to this area of meristematic activity is the region of cell elongation, which phases in to the region of differentiation and maturation.

The increase in protoplasm (occurring in cell division and elongation) is brought about through a series of events in which water, carbon - di-oxide and inorganic salts are transformed into living materials. These events include (a) photosynthesis (production of carbohydrates) (b) nutrient absorption and translocation (uptake of water, nitrogen and other mineral elements) and (3) anabolism (synthesis of various materials produced in plant from the carbon fragments produced by photosynthesis and from the inorganic nutrients and water absorbed from the soil). The energy required for all these processes is provided by a catabolic process viz., respiration (degradation of sugars and fats to release energy). The net balance of anabolism and catabolism results in growth of the plant.

Plant growth regulators are defined as chemicals other than nutrients and vitamins which regulate (or) modify the physiological process ofthe plant. A plant hormones or phytohormones are chemical substances which are naturally produced by plant in specific organs and are translocated from site of synthesis to the site of action. They bring about specific physiological response, even in very low concentration. The quantity of synthesis of these hormones differ from plant to plant, plant internal and external factors. They are readily absorbed and these chemicals move rapidly through the tissues when applied to different parts of the plant. A plant growth hormone may be termed as a plant growth regulator, but not vice - versa, since other than natural plant hormones, plant growth regulators are synthetically manufactured chemicals.

Plant growth regulators have a diverse chemical composition. Based on the general response the chemical mediates in the plant system, they are classified as growthpromoters and growth inhibitors/retardants. However, a particular growth regulator may be growth promoter at a lower concentration and growth inhibitor at higher concentration.

Greenhouses are frames or inflated structures covered with a transparent or translucent material in which crops can be grown under partially controlled or totally controlled conditions of atleast. It is large enough to permit persons to work within, to carry out cultural operations. Greenhouse cultivation as well as other modes of controlled environment cultivation has been evolved to create favourable microclimate, for the crop production all through the year or during off season, when the produce is highly priced and remunerative. Green house is a broader term of protected structures which includes different types of structures according to the need. Green houses vary in size and complexity from small home or hobby structures to large commercial units, from solar green house to sophisticated environment controlled ones.

GAP stands for “Good Agricultural Practices” which are used for production of safe agricultural produce which has zero microbial load on it and inside it. It is important for the producer to be acquainted with GAP.

Good Agricultural Practice of horticultural crops are intended to apply to the growing and processing of all produce as traded and used in the European Union. Hence, they apply to the production of all plant materials used in the food, feed and medicinal industries. They also apply to all methods of production including organic production in accordance with the European Union regulations.

The farmers involved in the cultivation of horticultural produce should ensure that the there is no damage to the existing wild life and the biodiversity in the farms which are maintained. It is advisable to regulate wild gathering by a specific guideline.

The main aim of GAP guidelines is to ensure that the produce meets the demand of the consumer and is of high quality standard.

It is therefore, important that they are produced hygienically, in order to reduce microbiological load to a minimum. They are produced with care, so that negative effect on plants in the course of cultivation, processing and storage is limited.

All participants in the production process are required to comply with these guidelines voluntarily and to develop practical measures to achieve it.

Organic cultivation is a deep rooted cultivation tradition, which had been practiced in many parts of the world, before the advent of the practice of use of chemicals.

After the green revolution there has been exponential usage of chemicals in agriculture, right from planting to harvesting. Chemicals are used in the form of nutrient inputs or for plant protection against pests, diseases, weeds and keeping deficiencies at bay. Nevertheless, after the awareness regarding the detrimental effect of chemicals on soil, climate and human health, there has been a lot of contemplation on substituting the chemicals with the organic alternatives. Growing crops using organic inputs is known as ‘organic cultivation’. Organic cultivation is a sustainable form of cultivation where a proper balance is maintained and management of plant nutrition, pests, weeds and diseases is done in a sustainable manner, keeping the soil microflora intact and active. It does not release any chemical gases in the atmosphere, does not make the soil acidic and the soil does not lose its structure and texture. Contrary to chemical farming, where over a time period, the soil quality, texture and structure is lost, in organic practices, the soil texture, quality and structure improves over time, the plants become strong and the quality of the produce is improved. Other than organic inputs, organic farming relies on some sustainable practices like using native germplasm, crop rotations with legumes, green manuring, mulching, inter cropping, mixed cropping, incorporation of farm and animal waste compost. These simple age old practices build to organic content in the soil and elevate the soil’s efficiency to make nutrients and water to the plants. The soil microflora and earthworms become biologically active, efficient and exponentially proliferate. The goal of organic cultivation is to get maximum produce from the soil in such a manner that the soil, air and water are clean and protected.

A kitchen garden/ nutrition garden is a vegetable garden where the vegetable crops are grown in the backyard of a house or any available space in compound or rooftop of the house, to meet the daily requirement of the family. All the members of the family are collectively involved in a kitchen garden.

For a balanced diet, 300 g of vegetables are to be included in our daily food. But on an average, Indians take only 160 g per day. Hence to fill up the gap, vegetable cultivation not only in farmers’ holdings but also in the home gardens is encouraged.

Micro propagation in also called as in vitro propagation. In vitro is a Latin word, meaning ‘in glass’. It refers to procedures done in controlled artificial environment, outside a living organism. These procedures naturally occur in the living system. Opposite to in vitro is in vivo which is also a Latin word, meaning ‘in living’. Biological processes that occur within the living system.

Micro propagation refers to the multiplication of plants, in aseptic conditions in containers under controlled nutritional and environmental condition. Micropropagation is done in artificial growth medium from various plant parts like meristem tip, embryos, anthers, axillary buds, leaf section, shootlips etc. It is a method by which a true to type and disease free plant can be regenerated from a miniature piece of plant throughout the year. Some popularly grown crops from tissue culture are as follows

Ornamental plants - orchids, lilium, gerbera, cordyline, begonia, ficus, etc.

A garden has a number of elements which give shape to its breath-taking view. Both animate and inanimate elements are included to achieve a beautiful garden The living elements are lawns, rock garden, water garden, sunken garden, hedges, edges, shrubs, topiary, flower bed, specimen plants, pergola and arches, while the inanimate elements, also called as adornments, are stones, road, footpaths, seats, lamps, lanterns, steps, bridges, huts, swings, fountain, cascade, bird bath, clock tower, umbrellas, sculptures etc.

Flowers of the garden are brought indoors to enjoy the beauty. Fresh flowers are arranged in various styles according to one’s choice. There are two major and distinct styles of arranging fresh flowers, namely the European and the Japanese. Both the styles are greatly influenced by the place where they have been originated. Flowers are also dried and used for different arrangements. Fresh flowers are used as ornaments and also for making floral patterns on the floor called Rangoli.

Horticulture is an art and science of growing plants. It is the practice of engaging ailing people in various horticultural activities such as gardening and flower arrangements in order to improve their physical, mental and spiritual health. Research confirms that health benefits escalate manifold when people connect with nature and plants by viewing and/or interacting with them. Major benefits of horticultural therapy includes sensory simulation and mood enhancement, mental relaxation, improvement of memory and concentration and an overall feeling of wellness. Horticulture therapy also helps in cultivating positive emotions and provides a meditative mood. It eases both physical and emotional pains and also improves social skills. It is proven that a simple viewing of a garden benefits a person both physically and mentally.

This practice has been used as therapy for centuries. In 1798, Dr. Benjamin Rush, considered as the “Father of American Psychiatry” documented that gardening has positive effects on mentally ill patients. Following World War, II gardening was used as a form of occupational therapy for war veterans. The concept of using nature to improve human health began to gain credibility in 1970’s. Rachel and Stephen Kaplan (1989) found that natural environments had relaxing and restoration benefits for people. The Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture, a peer-reviewed publication of the American Horticultural Therapy Association, has published authentic research papers since 1986. The American Horticultural Therapy Association (AHTA) serves to promote and advance horticultural therapy as a therapeutic intervention and rehabilitative approach. Degrees and certificate programs in horticultural therapy are offered at several colleges and universities and information is available on AHTA website.

Horticultural therapy is a worldwide practice and recognized as an effective treatment for clients of all ages and abilities. It is being used in several diverse settings including hospitals, rehabilitation centres, youth outreach and recovery programs, nursing homes, senior care facilities, prisons, mental health facilities, schools, botanical gardens etc. The client is engaged in horticultural activities facilitated by some trained therapists to achieve specific and documented goals. AHTA believes that horticultural therapy is an active process that occurs in the context of an established treatment plan where the process itself is considered as the therapeutic activity rather than the end product.

Horticulture therapy is a growing profession in rehabilitation and addiction centers, vocational centers, youth mental health programs, hospitals and nursing homes, and old age homes or senior citizen centers, mental health centers, schools and colleges.

Plants grow in the open in nature, hence are subjected to biotic and abiotic stress.

Biotic stress is due to living components such as:

Insects and pests

Nematodes, mites, snails, slugs etc.

Vertebrates like rats, birds, jackal, bats etc.

The plant experiences biotic stress when root, stem, bark, shoots, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits are damaged by the influence and activity of biotic factors.

Biotic factors Diseases

Like the pests, diseases also cause stress to plants. Diseases are caused by fungus, bacteria and virus. Sometimes the exposed part of insect eaten plant part becomes the entry pathway for fungus, bacteria and virus.

Horticultural crops are highly perishable and the post-harvest loss is estimated to be 20-30% every year. There are various factors associated with post-harvest losses. It includes pre-harvest cultural operations, maturity index at which the produce is harvested, methods of harvest, pre and post-harvest treatments, packing materials and storage methods. Postharvest technology can be defined as the techniques which help to reduce the post-harvest losses.

Assessment of harvesting stage

Climate may be related to periodical events in plants life. The science dealing with this relationship is termed as phenology. The phenological data for horticultural crops include dates of planting, germination, flowering, fruit set, ripening and harvest. These dates are determined by the climatic factors prior to as well at the time of harvest. A useful phonological concept for the prediction of the harvest time is based on degree days. A “ Degree day” can be defined as a day when mean daily temperature is one degree above the minimum temperature for the growth of the plant. The minimum temperature for the growth of a particular plant is termed as “zero temperature”. Zero temperature vary according to crop. E.g. if zero temperature of a particular crop is 50°F, then a day with mean temperature of 68°F would provide 18° days. The degree days are also called as “heat units”. It can be determined by how many degree days are needed for the horticultural crop to reach harvesting stage.

India is bestowed with varied climatic conditions and a variety of horticultural crops are produced. It is estimated that 20-30% of the produce is lost before consumption because of various reasons including improper storage and this is where the need of processing for preservation arises. There are various ways of preserving the produce and various ways to process it.

Preservation is defined as methods of extending the shelf life of the produce in its original form or in a different usable form. The basic principle of preservation involves strategies which aim at reducing the spoilage. The horticulture produce is spoiled by microbial infection or infestation. Prevention of microbial damage can be achieved by keeping the produce away from microbes, by removing the microbes, obstructing the proliferation and by killing the microbes. Infestation in the harvested fruits may lead to other microbial infection and spoilage due to rotting.

Defining-Commercial Plant Breeding

The term commercial plant breeding originates by putting prefix ‘commercial’ before ‘plant breeding’ and is used as an adjective to plant breeding which surely is a noun. Naturally, commercial plant breeding remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers. Along with consumers’ acceptance, these kinds of products must meet certain level of yield, maturity and resistance/tolerance to diseases and pests. Accordingly, these are designed and bred by the commercial seed companies which operate as per demand of the markets. Private seed companies operate on a business model and generate their own revenue to keep the companies running and therefore these seed companies are bound to design and breed commercially viable products. Thus, all plant breeding activities which occur at the research farm and laboratory of private seed companies aimed at designing and delivering commercially viable products are called as commercial plant breeding activities. While designing such project and running the plant breeding activities at the research farm and laboratories of the private seed companies, the emphasis has to be on ‘how to do’ and ‘how quickly to do’ rather than ‘why to do’. ‘Why to do’ issue is not totally ignored and this gets due consideration while formulating the research project based on extensive deliberations between various departments, namely, R&D, Sales and Marketing, Product Development, and Seed Production.

The term commercial plant breeding is generally not in use in public sector research institutes and the agricultural universities and certainly not in class room teachings and discussions while teaching courses on plant breeding and related courses under the domain of plant breeding. There the focus is on theory in contrast to applications which form the backbone of commercial plant breeding as practiced by the commercial organizations such as private sector seed companies which have to earn revenue by selling the products to meet the operational expenditure of running the companies and also to earn profit to run the activities of the company on long term basis in a sustainable manner and to invest in R&D. Therefore, a working definition of commercial plant breeding could be as follows.

The general recommendation for intake of fruits and vegetables is at least 400 g per person as recommended by World Health Organization (WHO), five servings of 80 g per day or about 146 kg per person per annum. For vegetables, the recommended intake requirement is at least 300 g per day per individual. This 300 g requirement must include 50 g leafy vegetables, 50 g roots and tubers and 200 g other vegetables (Kapur, 2016). Current annual vegetable production including potato, based on recent three years (2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18) average is around 177 million tons from 10 million ha giving a productivity of 17.7 ton/ha. With this average and stagnating production and assuming Indian population at 133 CR (1.33 billion) and 25% postharvest losses, per capita per day availability of vegetables comes to 273 g leaving a gap of 27 g between the recommended dose and the availability of vegetables per head per day in India. By 2050, the projected population of India is 1.5 billion and to meet the requirement of this population, vegetable production will have be 220 million tons, of course making allowance of 25% post-harvest losses. Considering all kind of constraints on the available land area of vegetables, the vegetable area will be around 10 million ha and consequently, major gain of production will have to come from productivity increase from current level of about 18 tons/ha to 22 tons/ha and this seems to be a gigantic task as during last several years, the productivity of vegetables in India has been between 17 and 18 tons/ha, an indication that it has reached to a plateau. This situation calls for fall massive interventions on technological fronts in terms of innovative products with focus on better hybrids with higher yields, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses deploying precision breeding technologies using more of marker assisted breeding, genomics and gene editing tools and delivering high quality seeds to the farmers with assurance of high performance. This chapter looks into the present seed scenario and the emerging trends with respect to new seeds and new technologies and examines the need to facilitate rules, regulations and IPR environment for more investment in vegetable research and development and quality seed production and distribution. Improved seed with shift towards hybrid seed will be the key driver to increase vegetable production and productivity in India.

Genotype × environment interaction underlies the efforts of crop ecologists, agronomists, and plant breeders to define ecological regions, mega-environments, and ecotypes and to specify the adaptation and yield stability of individual cultivars. Multi-location testing or multiple year testing gives rise to an important term, genotype x environment interaction. “Interaction” is a statistical term signifying differential response of genotypes over the environments. The environments could be in terms of more numbers of diverse locations or years. Multi-location trials (MLTs) are also called as multiple environment trials (METs) and these have been adequately reviewed by Yan and Hunt (1998) and Kang et al. (2004). The following sections of this chapter derive extensive information on MLT/MET from these two sources.

Introduction

The genotype-environment-interaction (GEI) is a complex phenomenon that undermines the repeatability of experimental results and consequently reduces the selection efficiency. Agricultural researchers have long been concerned of the various implications of GEI in plant breeding programmes. Understanding of the implications of GEI structure/nature is important in crop breeding programmes as a significant GEI can seriously impair selection of superior genotypes in new crop introduction and cultivar/hybrid development programmes. Crop breeders of field and vegetable crops, etc. are in better position to decide whether crop cultivars should be developed for all the environments of interest or if the breeders should develop specific cultivars for specific target/mega environments. Variation among genotypes in phenotypic sensitivity to the environment may require the development of locally adapted varieties.

Genotype-by-environment is widely observed and reported issue. Large numbers of publications both on GEI and stability parameters are pointers to the facts that it is a complex and intriguing issue and these are expected to be more relevant in the light of the fact that greater emphasis is going to be placed on sustainability of agricultural systems.

Genetic purity (GP) is a crucial seed quality factor. Several steps and precautions are involved in achieving the desired levels of genetic purity in the seed. Right from the choice of genetically pure seed for seed production up to final packing of the seed produced, at any stage, genetic purity can get affected. Field inspection and postharvest checks help in verifying conformity to seed quality standards especially genetic purity. Wherever seed characteristics are clear, examination of samples in the quality assurance laboratory for other distinguishable varieties (ODV) gives an idea of the genetic purity status. Among the several methods available for GP assessment, Grow Out Test is one.

In this context, some basic principles and procedures and guidelines relating to GOT are presented with more of information in tabular forms. In brief, the aspects covered include objectives, principles, kinds of GOT, genetic purity standards, procedure, main factors for observations, evaluation, and recording and reporting. Table 4.1 gives the submitted sample size for GOT; and Table 4.2 shows the minimum number of days required for evaluation from sowing and Table 4.3 deals with maximum weight of submitted sample and minimum weight of working sample for GPM, GOT and ODV.

Supply chain management or inventory management is an important and integral component of commercial breeding activities practiced by the private seed companies whose over all research efforts in terms of developing and commercially releasing high performing cultivars and hybrids get defeated unless the product reaches to the end users that is the farmers. Seed supply chain management is the lifeline of any seed business especially when the seed business is under private sector seed companies whose delivery is very strong. Supply chain management refers to the process of ordering, storing, and using a company’s inventory. These include the management of raw materials, components, and finished products, as well as warehousing and processing such items and ultimately delivering virtually to the door steps of the farmers through a strong network of dealers/distributors/retailers. For companies with complex supply chains and manufacturing processes, balancing the risks of inventory gluts and shortages is especially difficult and challenging.

The process of supply chain management is a continuously evolving process, ready to deal with the unforeseen situations like the situation created by COVID-19 pandemic forcing countries after countries going for lockdown and bringing the entire business operations including material and men transport to a grinding halt. However, even under these extremely challenging situations, governments fully know that agricultural activities cannot be fully stopped to avoid resurgence of hunger and malnutrition. However, despite the window allowed by the government for running the supply of essential goods including agricultural inputs like seed, agrochemicals and farm machines, manufacturing the agro-inputs including seeds and their distribution to the endpoints has become extremely difficult. A few companies have devised new processes to run seed supply using completely new and innovative approaches, for example, In Bayer’s first-ever e-commerce collaboration in India, the company has tied up with Agro-Star, a Pune-based e-commerce firm in the agricultural segment. Under the partnership, farmers can order Bayer’s seeds and crop protection products for their entire crop lifecycle and receive agronomic advisory through Agro-Stars digital agri-tech platform. Home delivery of agri-inputs can currently be availed by farmers in North, West and Central India, with plans to extend the scope to other geographies in the future. In the current COVID-19 lockdown situation, the partnership has enabled last mile delivery of products for multiple crops directly to farmer’s doorsteps.

The International movement of seed takes place for (i) germplasm for R&D purposes, (ii) experimental lines and hybrids for screening purposes, (iii) basic seed for multiplication purposes, and (iv) commercial varieties and hybrids for marketing (Ranganathan, 2019). Vegetable seed import and export for research purposes is handled by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi where the importing research organization in India first gets an import permit from NBPGR following due procedures as available on NBPGR website (www.nbpgr.ernet.in). Once the importing research organization, like ICAR institutes, state agricultural universities, private seed companies, etc get the import permit which specifies the list of material to be imported and the seed source, the import permit is sent to the research seed supplying agency who in turn attaches a phytosanitary certificate along with the copy of the import permit to the consignment and sends the same to NBPGR. NBPGR retains part of seed and releases the seed to the indenter after necessary quarantine test and charging quarantine fee. The importing organization is expected to give a brief report about the material to the NBPGR after its evaluation at its farm/lab.

The bulk seed import (vegetable seed for commercial purposes) is handled by Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Faridabad, Haryana (www.ppqs.gov.in) with no condition of testing by government system. This exemption of testing is not available for field crop seed. It needs to be clarified that the bulk vegetable seed import has been simplified as per New Seed Policy-1988 which has put the vegetable seeds among others under OGL (open general license) and this provision facilitates the vegetable seed in bulk and the private seed companies have taken advantage of this provision. The Indian private seed companies are importing large quantities of seed of cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, radish, carrot, beet root and even vegetable peas. The bulk vegetable seed import for commercial purposes is done as per following procedure.

Varietal release and notification comes under the purview of the Seeds Act which is intended to provide for regulating the quality of certain notified seeds for sale and for marketing and for the matters connected therewith. Released and notified varieties are offered for seed certification by the seed certification agencies which ensure that the varieties under certification meet certain prescribed field and seed standards failing which they stand to be rejected during the process of seed certification. This ensures seed quality and its availability to the farmers.

Purpose of Release

The purpose of Release of cultivars is to introduce the newly evolved varieties to the public and the farmers in particular for general cultivation in the region for which the variety is released and notified ensuring availability of seed of varieties according to their suitability and adaptation and avoiding mismatch. In other words, release of a cultivar is in the nature of a recommendation to the farmers for its adoption. Therefore, notification of a variety is linked to the release of a variety, though the release process itself does not have statutory cover.

The Seed Act 1966 was passed by the Indian Parliament on 29th December 1966 and it came into force from 2^nd October, 1969. In addition, Seed Regulation Order was also passed in December 1983. The sole objective of Seed Act and Order has been to ensure that the Indian farmers get good quality seeds of important crops. Important provisions and guidelines for the farmers are given below:

The Act is applicable for the seeds notified by the Central Government from time to time.

Seed quality is regulated at two stages viz. seed production and seed certification. For this purpose, seed testing laboratories and seed certification agencies are to be established in each state. Maharashtra has been the first state to implement this act. Now all the states have implemented this act.

New Seed Policy

Ministry of Agriculture, vide Letter No.11-71/88-SD-1 dated September 16,1988, has brought out ‘New Policy on Seed Development’, with the aim of providing to the farmers the best planting materials available in the world so as to increase productivity and thereby increasing farm income and export earnings. The Policy covers the import of seeds of coarse cereals/pulses/oil seeds; vegetable and flower seeds; bulbs/tubers of flowers; cuttings/ saplings/bud/wood etc., of flowers; and seeds & planting material of fruits. The following are the guidelines for the import of above categories of seed/planting material under the Seed Policy

Import of Seeds of Coarse Cereals/Pulses/Oil Seeds

The import of seeds of coarse cereals/pulses/oil seeds is permitted for a period not exceeding two years by companies that have technical/financial collaboration with companies abroad, provided that the latter agree to supply parental lines/nucleus or breeder seed technology to the Indian firm within two years of first shipment of commercial consignment. The bulk import is permitted by the importer based on the recommendation issued by the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC) after considering the trial/evaluation report of the varieties/hybrids, which he intends to import. PPA or any other officer notified for the said purpose issues the import permit based on the recommendation of DAC. However the recommendation of DAC is not required for import of trial material. The quantities of the seed permitted for import for initial trials by the importer, for ICAR multi-location trials & agronomic trials or combined trials (vide Letter No. 11-71/88/S.D.I dated 30^th January 1989 issued by the Ministry of Agriculture) as per Para 4.3.5 of Seed Policy shall be in accordance with Schedule-XII and also the quantities of seeds of parental lines required to be sampled and submitted in sealed condition for accession to gene bank of National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi (vide Letter No. 11-102/88-S.D.I dated 5^th February 1991) as per Para 4.3.8 of Seed Policy. The imported consignment shall be subjected to detailed testing for a period of 30-35 days and the same purpose the consignment will be held under detention in AAI warehouse or any customs bonded warehouse at the cost of importer.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory. The salient features of this act are as follows.

The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001, Act no. 53 of 2001, (30th october, 2001)

This act is in place to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants. It recognizes and protects the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving; improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of new plant varieties; it encourages accelerated agricultural development in the country; it protects plant breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development, both in the public and private sector, for the development of new plant varieties; it facilitates the growth of the seed industry in the country which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting material to the farmers. To give effect to the aforesaid objectives, it is necessary to undertake measures for the protection of the rights of farmers and plant breeders; as India, has ratified the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights should, inter alia, make provision for giving effect to sub-paragraph (b) of paragraph 3 of article 27 in Part II of the said Agreement relating to protection of plant varieties. Accordingly, this act is in place.

The increasing concerns about dwindling biological resources globally led to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992. This convention for the first time, recognized sovereign rights of States over their biological resources and emphasized that access to genetic resources should be only for environmentally sound purposes and should be subject to national legislations. The access has to be on mutually agreed terms which inter-alia would include recognition of associated Traditional Knowledge of indigenous communities and equitable benefit sharing arrangements.

Taking cognizance of the provisions of the CBD, and to deal with extensive pressure on our biological resources, India has enacted an umbrella legislation called Biological Diversity Act-2002 (No. 18 of 2003), and also notified the Biological Diversity Rules-2004 for guidance and compliance by various stakeholders, including the Union and State Governments, Non-state sectors, and individuals. The Act aims at conservation of biological resources as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process. The salient features of this act are as follows (NBA, 2004).

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plants breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

Such protection is likely to facilitate the growth of the seed industry which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting material to the farmers. India having ratified the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights has to make provision for giving effect to Agreement. To give effect to the aforesaid objectives the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 has been enacted in India

All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on vegetable crops (VC) was started during the IV five-year plan in 1970-71, to provide a national grid for multi-location testing of the vegetable technologies developed by various research institutes and state agricultural universities. The headquarter of the project was at the Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi and the first Project Coordinator (Vegetable Crops) joined the project in July 1971. During 1986, level of the project was elevated to the Project Directorate. Further, in a significant development during 1992, headquarter of the directorate was shifted from IARI, New Delhi to the present day Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) at Varanasi. In a significant development, in eleventh five-year plan the National Seed Project (Vegetables) was merged with AICRP (VC).

Presently the AICRP Vegetable Crops is a network of 36 regular and 18 voluntary centres. The network is headed by the Project Coordinator and it’s headquarter functions from IIVR (Indian Institute of Vegetable Research), Varanasi, main campus. The AICRP centers are located in different agro-climatic zones of the country. The centers in the network include ICAR institutes, central institutes, state agricultural and traditional universities and a few other public and private research organizations.

The World Vegetable Center (previously called as Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre, AVRDC) with headquarter at Shanhua, Taiwan conducts research, builds networks, and carries out training and promotion activities to raise awareness of the role of vegetables for improved health and global poverty alleviation. Vegetables can alleviate poverty by creating new jobs and new sources of income for farmers and landless laborers, improve health by providing essential micronutrients lacking in diets, enhance learning and working capacities of adults and children through improved diets and health, and improve the sustainability of food production practices by diversifying cropping systems. The Center’s research and development work focuses on breeding improved vegetable lines, developing and promoting safe production practices, reducing postharvest losses, and improving the nutritional value of vegetables (https://avrdc.org). The centre’s mission is Research and Development to realize the potential of vegetables for healthier lives and more resilient livelihoods

Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Miller, 2n = 2x = 24, also known as Solanum lycopersicum, Family Solanaceae) has been the leading vegetable crop globally. Tomato genome is composed of approximately 950 Mb of DNA, more than 75% of which is heterochromatin and largely devoid of genes. The global production of tomato in 2017 has been 182 million tons from 5 million ha area giving a productivity of 36.4 tons/ha. Top 10 countries in tomato production in descending order are China, India, Turkey, USA, Egypt, Iran, Italy, Spain, Mexico and Brazil. Tomato is planted almost throughout the year in different parts of India in an area of 8 lakh ha (0. 8 million ha) with production of 20.8 million tons giving a productivity of 26 ton/ha. Tomato area in India is almost 10% of total vegetable area. The states accounting for major tomato production in India are Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Gujarat, and Himachal Pradesh.

Out of total area, about 78% is planted with F₁ hybrid seed while remaining 22% of the area still goes to open-pollinated varieties. The average productivity of tomato close to 26 tons/ha is still very low compared with the global productivity of 36.4 tons/ha. However, with the introduction of high performing and disease resistant hybrids, the productivity and production are continuously improving. Most of hybrid tomato seed (95 tons) is sold by the private seed companies. There are more than 375 tomato hybrids in the commercial chain in India produced and marketed by different companies. About 50 hybrids out of these 375 hybrids are being grown on more than 80% of the area under tomato in India. Leading companies in tomato hybrid seed segment are Seminis (Bayer), Syngenta, Rasi HyVeg, and Namdhari (NHB, 2015; Kapur, 2016).

Chilli (Capsicum annuum, 2n = 2x = 24, family Solanaceae) also known as hot-pepper, classified as often-cross-pollinated crop is consumed both as fresh green and dry spice type. It is a rich source of vitamin C and pungency to the consumers and world food industries. The global area and production statistics often run into different figures due to inclusion of some times only fresh green chilies, sometimes red-dry chillies and sometimes inclusion of sweet peppers also in this broad category. The global production of fresh and dry chillies in 2014 has been reported to be 32.32 million tons where China alone accounted for 16.12 million tons followed by India with over 5 million tons of production. Other major countries growing chilli are Mexico, Indonesia, Spain, Turkey, USA, Korea, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nigeria, Thailand and Ethiopia. More than 65% of global green and dry chillies production is in Asia, while Europe contributes 12% and Africa around 10%. China is the leading producer of green and dry chillies, Area under chillies in China is less than that in India, but productivity is almost double than that in India.

Solanum melongena L. (2n = 2x = 24, family Solanaceae, often cross-pollinated) is known as eggplant in the United States and aubergine in France and England. It is one of the few cultivated solanaceous species originating from the Old World. It is known as brinjal in its home country, India, where it was domesticated long ago and where the greatest diversity exists. Widely grown in temperate and tropical Asian countries, eggplant has been also a common crop in the Middle East and around the Mediterranean basin and is now cultivated worldwide. Although an Old World taxon, S. melongena unexpectedly shares strong genetic similarities with New World Solanum species, namely, tomato and potato. These syntenic features have been discovered and will undoubtedly assist in an unlocking of the genes controlling eggplant key horticultural traits (Daunay, 2008).

As per FAOSTAT website-2018 quoted by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, Horticulture Statistics Division (2018), the world production of eggplant was 51.29 million tons from 1.79 million ha with a productivity of 28.65 tons/ha during 2016. Top ten countries in eggplant production during this period were China, India, Egypt, Turkey, Spain, Iran, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, and Philippines. The bulk of eggplant production came from top ranking China (0.78 million ha area, 32.03 million tons production and 41.06 tons/ha productivity) followed by India (0.66 million ha area, 12.60 million tons production and 19.09 tons/ha productivity) occupying the second rank. Productivity-wise, Spain is top rank holder with productivity close to 65 tons. Leading brinjal producing states in India are West Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Haryana, Jharkhand and Assam.