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Cassava (Syn: Tapioca) Manihot esculenta (Crantz) (2n = 2x = 36) (Hindi : Mravuli) is perennial shrub cultivated in tropics for its starchy tuberous roots. It is one of important tuber crops cultivated in tropics because of its high carbohydrate yield per unit land and labour and its adaptation to poor soil and water stress and its tolerance to dominant pest and diseases. Cassava contains cyanide, the toxic principle which limits food and feed value. In cassava the glycoside linamarin and lotaustralin are converted to hydrocyanic acid, a potent toxin, when come in contact with linamerase, an enzyme that is released from rupture of cells. Tuber peel contain significantly higher amount of glycosides than the pulp. It can be removed by cooking in water for about 5 minutes.

Botany

Cauliflower is highly cross pollinated crop due to self incompatibility. Flower is protogynous in nature. Stigma remains receptive 5 days before and 4 days after opening of the flower. The time taken from pollination to fertilization is 248 hours depending upon the temperature. The optimum temperature for fertilization and seed development is 12°C – 18°C. Bees are the major pollinators.

Method of seed production: There are two methods of seed production

1. in situ method (seed to seed method)
2. Transplanting method (Head to seed method)

For seed production, seed to seed method is recommended since the head to seed method in India has not been very successful. In seed to seed method (In situ method) the crop is allowed to over winter and produce seed in the original position, where they are first planted in the seedling stage.

Cauliflower
Cauliflower, Brassica oleracea L var. botrytis under the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x =18 is the most popular vegetable among the cole crops, particularly in Asia. It is grown in all continents of the world,= of which Asia is the leading one followed by Europe and covers small acerages in North America, South America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. India and China together have about 60 % of total cauliflower area of the world. Cauliflower is used in different curry and fry preparations with potato, garden pea, sweet pepper and other vegetables. It contains high quality proteins and good in stability of vitamin C after
cooking. Frozen products are also prepared from cauliflower. It is rich in minerals such as potassium, sodium, iron, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, etc.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
The cole crops have originated from the wild diploid species Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris mainly by mutation, human selection and adaptation. This wild species, a leafy kale-like plant which occurs in the northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea an along the lime cliffs in north-eastern England and North Sea is the progenitor of th cultivated kale and leafy non-heading cabbage. Probably kale was the first cole crop to have selected and adapted by man. From this leafy kale-like plant (Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris), other cole crops viz., kale, collard, broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage have been descended.

Cauliflower follows cabbage in importance with regard to area and production in the world. However in India Cauliflower is more widely grown than cabbage. This crop grows at a latitude 11°N to 60°N with average temperature ranging from 5- 8°C to 25-28°C. It can stand to the temperature as low as -10°C and as high as 40°C for a few days. Italy and India are the major countries growing CF on large scale. Important cauliflower growing states in India are UP, Karnataka, West Bengal, Punjab and Bihar. It is commonly grown in Northern Himalayas and Niligiri hills in south.

Origin and Distribution: Cauliflower is thought to have been domesticated in the Mediterranean region since, the greater range of variability in the wild types of B.oleracea is found there (Nieuwhof, 1969). Wild Cole warts are still found in wild state in sea cost of England and Denmark and in the North West France and various localities from Greece to Great Britain. The Cole crops, including cauliflower and cabbage have descended from a common Kale like ancestor, the wild cabbage (B.olearcea var. sylvestris L.) which is still found in western and southern Europe and North Africa (i.e, sea coasts of England and Denmark and in North West France and various localities from Greece to Great Britain). Cyprus and area around Mediterranean courts are considered to be the primary centers of origin for Cauliflower. It is also reported that cauliflower is originated from a related species. B.cretica. As per Bosewell (1949), it originated in the islands of Cyprus from where it moved to other areas like Syria, Turkey, Egypt, Italy, Spain and North Western Europe. Cornish types originated in England fallowed by temperate types originated in Germany and Netherlands in 18th century. The present Indian tropical cauliflowers developed as a result of intercrossing between European and Cornish type. In India tropical types with resistance to high temp and high rainfall conditions have been developed. Tropical types are grown in Indian plains from May to September, followed by temperate types known as snowball cauliflower.

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, 2n = 2x = 18, Family Brassicaceae, cross-pollinated, sporophytic self-incompatibility) is traditional European crop that has become widespread in Asia. As per Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018, published by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India (MAFW, 2018), during 2016, global production of cauliflower and broccoli was 25.23 million tons from 1.34 million ha with a productivity of 18.82 tons/ha. Bulk of area and production (>70%) was accounted for by China, I rank (0.52 million ha area, 10.26 million tons production, 19.73 tons/ha productivity) and India, II rank (0.43 million ha area, 8.20 million tons production, 19.0 tons/ha productivity). Other countries in the descending order were USA, Spain, Mexico, Italy, France, Poland, Pakistan and Egypt.

Within India, as per 2017-18 figures, top 10 cauliflower growing states are West Bengal (74, 000 ha), Bihar (62, 000 ha), MP (46, 000 ha), Orissa (41, 000 ha), Haryana (40, 000 ha), Gujarat (25, 000 ha), Chhattisgarh (24, 000 ha), Jharkhand (22, 000 ha), UP (18, 000 ha) and Punjab (18, 000).

Celery was grown as an aromatic and therapeutic herb by Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was first grown in Italy in the 16th century after this wild variety. It was then introduced to the British Islands by the Italians and French at the end of the 17th century. It was first grown in North America in the nineteenth century. Celery’s young leaves and stem are high in minerals, vitamins, and proteins, making it one of the most essential therapeutic plants. Celery oil has a pleasant aroma. This aromatic oil aids in the efficient functioning of the human brain. On an area of roughly 5000 acres, the crop is grown primarily in Punjab (Jallandhar, Gurdaspur, and Amritsar districts), Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh (Ladhwa and Saharanpur districts). Punjab provides almost 90% of the overall production

Plant body consists of numerous microscopic box like components called cells. The word cell has been derived from the Latin word cellula, meaning a small room. The descriptive term for this smallest living biological structure was coined by Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665. When he compared the cork cells, he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life, which is classified as a living thing and is often called the building block of life (Maton et al., 1997). It is defined as a mass of protoplasm surrounded by a membrane- the plasma membrane- within which complicated chemical reactions are going on.

Crop Domestication

Domestication can be loosely defined as the process of bringing of a wild species under the management of man. Domestication is the process by which genetic changes (or shifts) in wild plants are brought about through a selection process imposed by humans. Because of the role of humans, the process results in characteristics that are beneficial to humans but some that would be disadvantageous for plants in their natural habitats. It is an evolutionary process in which selection (both natural (frost tolerance) and artificial (large attractive fruits)) operates to change plants genetically, morphologically, and physiologically. 

India has a wide agroclimatic range i.e. temperate, subtropical and tropical, enabling to achieve horticulture diversification. India is second in fruit and vegetable production at global level. The percentage share of horticulture output in agriculture has become 33%, (Horti statistics, 2018). However, productivity in most of the horticulture commodities is very low below world productivity, as we have not concentrated intensively on some major aspects to achieve competitiveness in horticulture for expansion in international trade.

India has potential to lead the world in horticulture. Horticulture is mostly concerned in different aspects of human beings such as provision of nutritious food to achieve a balanced diet; rural employment, integral part of rainfed and dry land areas, wealth generation through the activities of production, processing, marketing, servicing, and related sectors, economically important in export related activities and associated with all the elements of the supply chain etc. 

There are several difficulties involved with consuming and storing microgreens. Addressing low shelf life and putting into practice efficient postharvest management for microgreens provide formidable challenges for researchers. It's critical to comprehend any relationships that might exist between spoiling and human pathogen contamination. Research has indicated that microgreens including basil, lettuce, parsley, melons, and spinach can have infections from pathogens during the seed-to-harvest stage (Alegbeleye et al., 2018). Growing environments that support the growth or transfer of microorganisms, processing techniques that expose the crop to contaminants from people or animals, and physiological traits of the plant that facilitate contact and binding with microorganisms are some of the factors that contribute to this risk (Maluin et al., 2021). Because external fertilizers and manures are applied sparingly, there is little contamination even though microgreens are protected from pests and insects by controlled surroundings.

ABSTRACT

Atotal of 45 Gram positive, spore forming and rod shaped bacteria identified as Bacillus species were isolated from the rhizosphere of Chickpea plants. They were studied for their interaction with root borne fungal pathogens was studied using spot test method. Isolates CBS 29, CBS 113, CBS 123, CBS 132, CBS 153 and CBS 155 inhibited the growth of four or more fungi with inhibition zones varied from 1-5 mm. Two isolates CBS 153 and CBS 155 produced siderophores on CAS supplemented agar medium. Further inoculation of these Bacilli on seeds of Chickpea cultivar C235 and H8618 showed inhibitory, stunting or stimulatory effects on plumule and radicle growth depending upon cultivar, bacterium used and stage of seedling growth. Studies on co-inoculation of these isolates with Mesorhizobium and their plant growth promoting activity are being carried out. These co-inoculation studies are important areas of exploitation to improve crop productivity.

Sauropus androgynus, also known as katuk, star gooseberry, or sweet leaf, is a tropical shrub that is used as a leaf vegetable in some areas. It’s known as Chinese Malunggay in China, and madhura cheera in Kerala, India. It has several upright stems that can grow up to 2.5 metres tall and dark green oval leaves that are 5-6 cm long. It’s known as ‘Multivitamin Greens’ because of its great nutritional value. Chekurmanis, which may be found in practically every household kitchen garden in Kerala, has not been cultivated for commercial use on a significant scale. As a result, there are no data on the area and production of these vegetables.

The chemical composition of seeds is basically determined by genetic factors and varies among different species and seed parts (Table 1). However, it is influenced by environmental and cultural practices.

In the previous chapter the physical methods of fruit and vegetables processing and preservation have been discussed. The present chapter deals with chemical method of fruit and vegetable preservation. In this method of preservation of fruits and vegetables, chemicals as preservatives are used to prevent the spoilage of fruit and vegetable products. These preservatives react with food (produce) constituents or microorganisms and create unfavourable conditions which hinder growth, activities and multiplication of microbes responsible for spoilage of food products. These chemical agents have maximum permissible limit of their use as law. They can be classified into two classes class I and class II.

Class I: Sugar, Salt and Oils

Class II: Sodium benzoate, Potassium metabisulphite (K M S) and Sorbic acid

Very little is known about the basic principles governing the chemistry of flavour or fragrance. In English, the term aroma chemicals is used for both fragrance and flavour compounds. Any compound with a sufficiently high vapour pressure will have an odour and this is normally of the molecular weight of around 300, a relatively low polarity granted (Frater et al., 1998). Generally only compounds with pleasant smell are considered to fall under the realm of fragrance chemistry, but purified individual components from a mixture may have a malodour. Almost all ancient civilizations had their tradition of making fragrances from natural materials, mostly of plant origin, but also of animal origin – these are mostly essential oils, exudates, balsam and resins (Arctander, 1969).
 
It was in the latter half of the 19th century that synthetic fragrance chemicals were experimented upon and brought into the market, examples being coumarin (Fig. 1) (in the year 1866), salicylaldehyde (Fig. 2) (1876), vanillin (Fig. 3) (1876), phenylacetaldehyde (Fig. 4) (1883), piperonal (Fig. 5) (1890), musk xylol (Fig. 6) (1891) and b-ionone (Fig. 8) (1893) (Frater et al., 1998).

All the above ground parts of the plant are affected. There is development of round and elongated spots surrounded by brownish red margin on the leafl ets. At later stage spots coalesce and entire leaf turns brown. On green pods, the lesions are usually circular with dark margin and pin head like dark dots representing the pycnidia in concentric circles.

It is a very important and commonly found disease of chili which observed in field as well as in storage. It is also known as anthracnose disease which is mostly seen in tropical and sub tropical regions.

Chilli or Pepper (Capsicum Sps.) originated in South America and spread into the New World tropics before subsequent introduction to Asia and Africa. Chillies are now widely grown throughout the tropics, sub-tropics and warmer temperature region of the world. The genus Capsicum is a member of the family Solanaceae.

Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thrips palmi: Thripidae

The adults of this insect are small brownish black with fringed wings. The nymphs are slender and yellowish straw coloured, later acquiring more brownish hue. They lacerate the tissues and feed on the exuding sap. Leaves become crinkled, curled upward and shed. The attack can be confused with chilli mosaic symptom.  In capsicum and chilli, they also feed beneath calyx of flowers and fruits causing flower/fruit drop and reduction in yield and market value of capsicum. Buds become brittle and drop down. Plants get stunted and bronzed. The fruits if at all formed are crinkled and small.

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) and bell pepper (Capsicum annuum var. grossum) are economically significant crops in India, known for their distinct attributes and culinary uses. Despite their shared progenitor, these crops exhibit varietal differences and require specific breeding strategies for hybrid seed production due to small flower size. The development of male sterile systems has revolutionized hybrid seed production, with the exploitation of Genetic Male Sterility (GMS) and Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS) in chilli and bell pepper breeding. The market for chilli seeds in India is substantial, driven by the demand for high-value hybrid seeds. This chapter comprehensively reviews the botanical characteristics, genetic resources, and breeding objectives in Capsicum species, emphasizing traits like disease resistance, high yield, and stress tolerance. It also highlights varietal achievements in public and private sectors, showcasing improved cultivars and hybrids with specific attributes. The integration of molecular markers in male sterile genes facilitates efficient hybrid seed production, ensuring genetic purity and quality. Additionally, the package of practices for seed production in chilli underscores the importance of isolation, field standards, inspection, harvesting, seed processing, and quality standards to maintain seed purity and viability.