eChapters

Ridge gourd also known as ribbed gourd or angled gourd or silky gourd or angled loofah or vegetable gourd (Luffa acutangula (Roxb. L., 2n = 2x, family Cucurbitaceae, mostly monoecious and cross-pollinated but behaving like self-pollinated crop in term of no inbreeding depression) is not a crop of global importance; rather it is grown and consumed primarily in India and the adjoining countries which used to be part of greater India. In India, estimated area is 50,000 ha spread over almost entire country but the leading states are UP, Bihar, West Bengal, MP, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and north east hill region.

Origin and Domestication

Ridge gourd has similar origin as that of sponge gourd (refer to page 428).

Dolichos bean is known as Lablab bean, hyacinth bean or sem. Grown as field crop in MP, Maharashtra, AP and TN. Genus Dolichus is renamed as Lablab (Syn. D. lablab, D. purpureus, Lablab niger, L. bvulgaris) and Lablab purpureus name is widely accepted. Dolichos lablab L. (synonyms Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet.) is leguminous pod vegetable grown in tropics and few temperate countries. Lablab niger var. lablab is synonym to Dolichos lablab var. typicus where long axis of seed is parallel to suture and is vegetable type. Lablab niger var. lignosus synonym to Dolichos lablab var. lignosus where long axis of seed is perpendicular to suture and is pulse type.

Greenhouse

It is constructed by plastic, polythene, and fibreglass material having temperature control and ample light availability needed for propagating plants by seed, cutting and grafting.

Types of greenhouse

1. Based on shape and style: The commonly followed types of greenhouse based on shape are lean–to, even span, uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw tooth and quonset greenhouse.

Lean–to type greenhouse:

• It is limited to single or double–row plant benches with a total width of 7–12 feet.
• It is typically facing south side. It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure.
• This design makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirement of roof supports.
  • It has the disadvantages: limited space, limited light, limited ventilation and temperature control.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

Curry leaf is an important perennial tree vegetable cum spice crop of India mostly used in South Indian culinary preparations for flavouring food stuff. It is an underexploited crop. The leaves have slightly pungent, bitter and feebly acidic taste and they retain their flavour and other qualities even after drying. Curry leaf is used in many of the Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions. It has many industrial values and medicinal uses. Its leaves, roots and bark are credited with tonic, stomachic and carminative properties. Leaves are reported to cure piles and allay heat of body. The green leaves are said to be eaten raw for treatment of dysentery. External application of pulped bark and root is reported to relive eruptions and bites of poisonous animals. An injection of toasted leaves is used to stop vomiting. The tribal people of India use its ground bark to rub on the bitten Part As a snake bite remedy. The powdered leaves are also used to aid in healing of fresh cuts. The dried curry leaf powder is also a good spice powder for use in the food stuff preparation and is exported. Fresh leaves on a steam distillation under high pressure yield 2.6 % (curry leaf oil) volatile oil which is used as fixative for heavy type of soap and perfume. Rectified leaf oil is deep yellow in colour with a strong spicy odour and pungent clove like taste. A volatile oil, a crystalline glucoside ‘Koenigin’ from the leaves and ‘Murayam’ from the flowers are industrial products. Curry leaf is grown on large scale in West Bengal, Assam, Deccan plateau, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It is cultivated in Coimbatore, Salem and Tiruchirappalli districts of Tamil Nadu on a commercial scale.

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Sorrel is a perennial herb, which is found in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It is of two types such as Garden sorrel that is a native of Europe and south western Asia and French sorrel that is originated in the mountains of southern France and the southern and central regions of Europe and south-west Asia. The name sorrel is derived from the Germanic word, Sur and the old French word Surele, both meaning sour. It is primarily used as a culinary herb for its leaves, which are used in salads too. The leaf of this plant resembles that of spinach and have a lemony lettuce flavour and the plant is well known for strong acidity in Europe and the United States. Sorrel is a rich source of potassium, iron and vitamins A, B₁ and C. The flavour of sorrel leaves is mainly due to oxalic acid, which is harmless when consumed in small amount. Owing to high level of vitamin C content, it was rightly believed to protect against scurvy disease. It is a dioecious plant, that bears unisexual flowers, as the male and female flowers appear on different plants. When the plant flowers, they look very attractive and are often used as an ornamental plant.

18.2 CHOICE OF CULTIVARS

In India, it is not a common leafy vegetable and is grown on a limited scale, mostly in kitchen gardens. Even in Europe and other countries, different local strains are grown for both home gardening and commercial cultivation. Profusion is a cultivar, which mutated naturally in France and produces only leaves without forming seed, and hence, the plant always has fresh and ready to pick leaves.

Choosing the appropriate construction materials requires evaluating their properties, cost, availability, and how well they suit the particular project. Common materials include concrete, steel, bricks, wood, stone, glass, and various plastics. Key specifications often considered are strength, durability, fire resistance, and environmental impact.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR TRADITIONAL GREENHOUSE
Traditional greenhouses are built using a variety of materials that ensure durability, insulation, and protection for plants, while also allowing sunlight to penetrate. The selection of materials depends on factors such as cost, climate, and the greenhouse’s intended purpose. Here are some of the common materials used in constructing traditional greenhouses:
1. Wood: Wood has been a traditional and widely used material in greenhouse construction due to its affordability and ease of use. Treated wood, such as cedar or redwood, is commonly chosen for its resistance to decay and insects. Wood offers good insulation and stability, making it suitable for different climates.
2. Galvanized Steel: Steel frames provide exceptional structural support and are known for their strength and durability. Galvanized steel is coated to prevent rust and corrosion, extending its lifespan. Steel frames are capable of withstanding heavy loads and harsh weather conditions.
3. Aluminum: Aluminum frames are lightweight and resistant to corrosion, making them a favored choice for greenhouse construction. They are easy to assemble and require little maintenance over time.
4. PVC Pipes: PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipes are cost-effective and simple to work with, making them ideal for smaller or temporary greenhouses. They provide a basic, lightweight framework that is easy to assemble.

Introduction

Nature provides a wealth of genetic variation in both wild and cultivated plants. In the advanced selections conducted in developing superior crop varieties cultivated today agriculture represent only a small portion of the available gene pool. However wild species remain a reservoir of valuable genetic variation and represents a valuable source for exploitation of unexplored genetic variation for improvement of various agronomic traits. Most success has come from introgression of specific single gene controlled traits largely for disease resistance (Tomleyson, 2000 and Sergio et al., 2000). The identification of genes and co-adapted gene complexes that control complex agronomic traits such as adaptation to specific environmental stresses, crop quality, yield, plant architecture, flowering time (especially important for vegetable crops) has been less effectively addressed so far and remains a major and immediate challenge. Also, existence of low genetic diversity in breeding lines of many species used in various plant breeding programs is often resulting in development of insignificant improvement of the trait under investigation (Christopher, 2000). Understanding the spectrum, frequency and distribution of allelic variation in genes controlling such multiple genes controlled complex traits will improve our knowledge of exploitation of natural variation and promotes effective management and exploitation of functional biodiversity. In India efforts have been initiated in the exploitation, conservation of crop germplasm and technologies that are needed to fully exploit this natural diversity available in our major crop plants and their wild relatives. For example, centers that maintain diverse germplasm collections (both by ICAR and State Agricultural Universities nation wild are well established.

34.1. Aim

To conduct cut out analysis of canned fruits and vegetable products.

34.2. Theory

Cut out examination of canned products is conducted to evaluate the product whether confirming to FSSAI standards or not. Canned fruit and vegetables are evaluated for presence of vacuum or pressure in the can, drained weight, total soluble solids, presence or absence of preservative, internal condition of can product contents and presence or absence of fermentation for ensuring microbiological safety.

Different crops are grown in a field. Any plant growing in a place where it is not desired competing with the main crops, has to be weeded out and such plants are called ‘weed’.

Effect of weed menace The weeds

Reduce crop yield and production efficiency. It competes with the main economical crop for space, water and nutrients.

Reduce crop quality.

Hamper intercultural operations.

Reduce crop quality.

Obstruct the flow of water in the irrigation channels.

Exert allelopathic effect on crops.

Harbour insect and pests, which affect the main crop of interest.

Increase the cost of production.

Nursery is one of the important components of horticultural crop production. Nursery is place where young crop plants are raised under intensive care for later transplanting to the field. Nurseries may be classified as follows. On the basis of the irrigation facilities, the nurseries are dry or wet nurseries.

1. Dry Nurseries: Generally such types of nurseries are observed in forestry. It is maintained without any irrigation or artificial watering. The rab nurseries of Western Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat come under this category. The rab or semi-rab nurseries are made in the plantation areas on small well-burnt patches of land usually 0.01 to 0.05 ha mainly for supplying teak stumps. The seeds are sown in lines 45 cm apart just before the onset of monsoon. Normally no elaborate beds are made, no fencing is made and no irrigation is provided as compared to other nurseries.

Organic cultivation is a deep rooted cultivation tradition, which had been practiced in many parts of the world, before the advent of the practice of use of chemicals.

After the green revolution there has been exponential usage of chemicals in agriculture, right from planting to harvesting. Chemicals are used in the form of nutrient inputs or for plant protection against pests, diseases, weeds and keeping deficiencies at bay. Nevertheless, after the awareness regarding the detrimental effect of chemicals on soil, climate and human health, there has been a lot of contemplation on substituting the chemicals with the organic alternatives. Growing crops using organic inputs is known as ‘organic cultivation’. Organic cultivation is a sustainable form of cultivation where a proper balance is maintained and management of plant nutrition, pests, weeds and diseases is done in a sustainable manner, keeping the soil microflora intact and active. It does not release any chemical gases in the atmosphere, does not make the soil acidic and the soil does not lose its structure and texture. Contrary to chemical farming, where over a time period, the soil quality, texture and structure is lost, in organic practices, the soil texture, quality and structure improves over time, the plants become strong and the quality of the produce is improved. Other than organic inputs, organic farming relies on some sustainable practices like using native germplasm, crop rotations with legumes, green manuring, mulching, inter cropping, mixed cropping, incorporation of farm and animal waste compost. These simple age old practices build to organic content in the soil and elevate the soil’s efficiency to make nutrients and water to the plants. The soil microflora and earthworms become biologically active, efficient and exponentially proliferate. The goal of organic cultivation is to get maximum produce from the soil in such a manner that the soil, air and water are clean and protected.

Plants grow in the open in nature, hence are subjected to biotic and abiotic stress.

Biotic stress is due to living components such as:

Insects and pests

Nematodes, mites, snails, slugs etc.

Vertebrates like rats, birds, jackal, bats etc.

The plant experiences biotic stress when root, stem, bark, shoots, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits are damaged by the influence and activity of biotic factors.

Biotic factors Diseases

Like the pests, diseases also cause stress to plants. Diseases are caused by fungus, bacteria and virus. Sometimes the exposed part of insect eaten plant part becomes the entry pathway for fungus, bacteria and virus.

India is bestowed with varied climatic conditions and a variety of horticultural crops are produced. It is estimated that 20-30% of the produce is lost before consumption because of various reasons including improper storage and this is where the need of processing for preservation arises. There are various ways of preserving the produce and various ways to process it.

Preservation is defined as methods of extending the shelf life of the produce in its original form or in a different usable form. The basic principle of preservation involves strategies which aim at reducing the spoilage. The horticulture produce is spoiled by microbial infection or infestation. Prevention of microbial damage can be achieved by keeping the produce away from microbes, by removing the microbes, obstructing the proliferation and by killing the microbes. Infestation in the harvested fruits may lead to other microbial infection and spoilage due to rotting.

Onion is highly vulnerable to weed competition because of its slow early growth, shallow roots, narrow upright leaves and limited canopy development. Weeds compete for light, water, nutrients and space while also harbouring pests and pathogens. Severe infestation during the critical competition period can cause substantial yield reduction. This chapter describes major onion weeds and evaluates cultural, physical, mechanical, biological and chemical control methods. Timely planting, suitable spacing, mulching, raised beds, manual weeding, mechanical tools, herbicides and biological agents are discussed. Integrated Weed Management is recommended as a smart approach combining complementary methods to improve weed control, protect soil health and sustain onion productivity.

India is a leading producer and exporter of onion, but its productivity, market stability and post-harvest efficiency remain constrained. Farmers face fragmented holdings, climate uncertainty, price fluctuations, inadequate storage, technological gaps and significant post-harvest losses. This chapter reviews government programmes and policies related to financial support, irrigation, infrastructure, crop insurance, market access, farmer organizations, storage, processing and agricultural research. It also discusses export-quality requirements, grading, packaging and pesticide-residue standards. Research priorities include stress-resistant varieties and hybrids, drip irrigation, fertigation, growth regulation, sprout control and non-thermal storage treatments. Coordinated policies and technological dissemination can improve farmer income, productivity, quality and market resilience.

Fruits and vegetables play an important role in balanced diet. These provide not only energy rich food but also provide vital protective nutrients/elements and vitamins. Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods. Since most of Indians are vegetarians, the incorporation of horticulture produce in daily diet is essential for good health. Realizing the worth of fruits and vegetables in human health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommended the use of 120g fruits and 300g vegetables per capita per day. With the growing awareness and inclination towards vegetarianism worldwide the horticulture crops are gaining tremendous importance.

Functions of fruits and vegetables in human body

Fruits and vegetables provide palatability/taste.

Improves appetite and provides fiber to overcome constipation.

They neutralize the acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids.

They improve the general immunity of human body against diseases, deficiencies etc.

They are the important source of vitamins and minerals for used in several bio-chemical reactions occur in body.

Kangkong also known as water spinach, water convolvulus and swamp cabbage is an important leaf vegetable in South East Asia including Taiwan and Malaysia. It is a semi aquatic herbaceous plant having trailing or floating habit; sometimes it is biennial or perennial. Normally the main shoot of this plant trails horizontally and lateral shoots bear leaves and flowers and trail like the main shoot. Stem is hollow and leaves are arranged alternate. The succulent foliage is light green and leaves are elliptic or ovate oblong and cordate at the base. Flowers are 2.5 to 5 cm long, white or pale purple with dark purple eye, solitary or in five flowered cyme. Fruit is a capsule, ovoid and smooth with 2 to 4 seeds. This crop is ideally suited to areas where water stagnation is a problem and is found trailing on moist soil or mud along margins of stagnant ponds, streams, marshes and wet rice fields. It is sometimes found floating on water surface. At every node, it produces a number of adventitious roots.

Introduction

The common mycorrhizal association in most of the plants is the arbuscular type occurring in the majority of agricultural and horticultural crops. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are formed by non-septate Zygomycetous fungi belonging to the genera Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Sclerocystis, Entrophospora, Scutellospora, Archaeospora and Paraglomus in the order Glomales. These fungi are obligate symbionts and have not been cultured on nutrient media. These endophytes are not host specific although evidence is growing that certain endophytes may form preferential association with certain host plants. Several investigations indicted that even in unsterile soils plants do respond to inoculation with efficient strains of arbuscular mycorrhizae. Numerous experiments have been conducted in different parts of the world confirming this growth improvement. The increased growth of mycorrhizal plants is favoured in soils with low to moderate fertility. More specifically, soils favouring mycorrhizal growth stimulation usually have one or more essential nutrients, especially phosphorus, in limiting concentrations.

The mechanism of improved plant growth caused by mycorrhizal inoculation has been investigated by many workers. Greater soil exploration by mycorrhizal roots as means of increasing phosphate uptake is well established. They also improved the uptake other diffusion-limited elements like Zn, Cu, etc. The other beneficial effects are their role in the biological control of root pathogens, biological nitrogen fixation, hormone production and greater ability to withstand water stress (Bagyaraj, 1984).

Introduction Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) belongs to family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae is a under exploited vegetable crop. It is introduced in 19th century. Economic Importance and Uses Its edible part is leaves and contains amazing source of amino acids, vitamins and minerals which has many medical advantages. It helps in lowering of blood cholesterol level which helps in lessening the heart illness. Kale leaves is also rich source of beta carotene, ascorbic acid and phylloquinone. Kale is a nutritious vegetable that is rich in vitamins A, C, and K, as well as calcium and iron. It is also a good source of antioxidants and fiber, making it a popular choice for health-conscious consumers. Kale is not so popular crop in India therefore it confined to very few states of Northern India like HP, UP, J & K, Pb and Haryana.

Tree tomato belongs to the family solanaceae, genus Cyphomandra and species betacea. The Cyphomandra genus is made up of about 30 species. Shaw (1996) has reported that Cyphomandra genus consists of 35 species confined to the New World tropics. They were earlier described under the genus Solanum. They can be separated from Solanum  by several characters, the most important being anther characters. In Cyphomandra in the anther the connective is thickened and expanded dorsally. As a result, it is clearly differentiated from the anther thecae, which is thin walled and papillose.

Economically important plant in this genus is Cyphomandra betacea. Other important related species are Cyphomandra casana (Casana), C. craccifolia (Mountain tomato) and C. fragrans (Guava tamarillo). It has got distant affinity with Lycopersicon esculentum (Tomato), Physalis ixocarpa (Tomatillo), P. peruviana (Cape gooseberry), Solanum muricatum (Pepino Dulce) and S. sessiliflorum (Cocona).