eChapters

The presence of nuts in the kernel is known as stubborn nuts or seedless or imperfect nuts and is frequent in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). The nozzles impacted are oblong compared with the typical circular form of the nozzles and less than normal husk is generated. The often-breaking shell over the course of the development is the most typical feature of the barren nut. 

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gramnegative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonascompestris(Plate 257). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas.

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes.

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 258). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

The essential plant nutrients, or essential elements, are listed in the Table 41. It enumerates 16 chemical elements of which the essentiality for plant growth and reproduction has been established according to the criteria formulated by D.I. Arnon and P.R. Stout, 1939. This listing has existed since 1954 with chlorine as the latest addition (cited by Hopkins 1999).

These plant nutrients are classified into various groups:

1.    Major elements and trace elements : Of the 16 listed, 9 are major elements or macronutrients and 7 are trace elements or micronutrients. Major elements are those which are needed by plants for their growth and reproduction in relatively large amounts while trace elements are needed in smaller amounts compared to the former. The major elements are further sub classified into structural elements (carbon, oxygen and hydrogen), primary macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium), and secondary macronutrients (calcium, sulfur, and magnesium). Micronutrients are Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Mo4 and boron (Table 41).

Vegetables which are consumed raw without cooking are known as salad crops. In temperate regions, a large number of quick growing cool season crops like lettuce, celery, parsley, endive, chicory, chervil, cress, water cress etc. are consumed as raw. Only lettuce and celery are cultivated on a commercial scale in developed countries. Growing awareness on nutritional values of raw vegetables and also health consciousness of people resulted in increased consumption of salad vegetables in tropics too. Vegetables like onion, cucumber, tomato, carrot, radish, beet root, cabbage, capsicum, melon etc. are used as salads without cooking. 

(Hindi: Salad) Fam.: Asteraceae (Compositae)

Lettuce is the most popular salad crop of the world and the most important vegetable crop in temperate regions. The crop is grown mainly under protected structures in temperate countries. Tender leaves and heads are chopped and used as salad along with salt and vinegar.

Visit to a seed processing unit and attending the following questionnaire to know firsthand information on operations of shop floor

Methods in Seed Blending

For good seed blending there are three methods and details of which given as below:

Mechanical damage is inflicted on seeds during harvesting, threshing drying, processing and handling. Injury may occur from any kind of physical abuse. Threshing abuse probably is most serious but, seed conditioning and handling also contribute to seed injury. High temperatures during drying or drying too quick or excessively can cause injury. Susceptibility to mechanical injury increases as the moisture content of the seed decreases. Effect of all individual impacts received by the seed appears to be cumulative in total seed damage. Cereals are largely immune to mechanical injury presumably because of the protective outer structures, the palea and lemma. Large sized legumes are more suscepitable. Small seeds tend to escape injury during harvest and seeds that are spherical tend to suffer less damage than elongated or irregularly shaped ones.

Driftwood is wood that has been washed onto a shore or beach of a sea or river by the action of winds, tides, waves or man. It is a form of marine debris or tide wrack.

In some waterfront areas, driftwood is a major nuisance. However, the driftwood provides shelter and food for birds, fish and other aquatic species as it floats in the ocean. Gribbles, shipworm sand bacteria decompose the wood and gradually turn it into nutrients that are reintroduced to the food web. Sometimes, the partially decomposed wood washes ashore, where it also shelters birds, plants, and other species. Driftwood can become the foundation for sand dunes.

Seed size is an important parameter of seed vigor as it in influences the performance of seed in soil. Seed bulk at harvest contains a wide range of seed sizes but these may not all be of equal value for sowing. Farmers have always realized the necessary of using uniform seeds for good viability to obtain high emergence and growth. This will also help in getting optimum plant population and higher yields.
 
The influence of seed size on seedling vigor and crop productivity has already been proven since the days Hannaford who was considered as father of seed processing. To achieve uniformity in seed size this optimum sieve/screen size is very critical for optimum seed recovery and economical seed yield. Though the screen sizes are standardized for different crops but vary with different varieties. The shop floor should continuously explore and fine tune screen sizes for different varieties.

This practical in continuation of the practical no.10 explore the effects of screen sizes on different varieties. The screen sizes vary not with crops but with varieties also. To know the effect of screen sizes among the varieties we need to take the top and middle screens as standard or as recommended. These methods can be applied to any crop and to different varieties.

The use of seed processing equipments helps in improving the seed quality by inducing uniformity of physical properties of seeds. This help in achieving optimum plant population and desired economic yield. In certain crops like soya bean, standard seed processing may not give desired seed quality because of sensitivity towards moisture. As general practice seed need to be dried to its safe moisture content of 9 before processing. But in case of soya bean lower seed moisture may result higher mechanical damage after standard seed processing. Drier seed are more vulnerable for mechanical damage. In this practical w try to explore the importance of moisture in seed processing and also need of alternative processing equipments like spiral graders to minimize mechanical damage.

Seed is the primary and essential starting point of a wide range of crops, including the majority of vegetables except those vegetative propagated (e.g- potato and sweet potato). Seedling emergence and field stand establishment is one of the problems facing the growers, especially in early planting where adverse conditions are prevailed (low temperature and high soil moisture). Seed germination and seedling emergence are affected by many factors such as: seed genotype, seed quality (seed viability and seed vigor) and the environmental conditions (moisture and temperature) prevailing during seed germination and subsequent seedling emergence, assuming that the seed is not dormant.

Objective

    1.    Design drum priming (2-3 kg and drying unit with house hold or commonly available materials.
    2.    Standardization of time for seed priming for different crops.

Probable drum priming unit components

A] A vertical drum which need to be rotating
B] A motor which will rotate
C] A desktop assembly
D] A simple two way seed drier (Fig not given here)

ABSTRACT

In cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) there are successful reports on the production of shoots from nodal segments under in vitro,the rooting was always inconsistent and mortality during hardening stage was very high. In the present study 20-30 per cent rooting was obtained in half strength MS supplemented with activated charcoal. Maximum rooting was obtained when the shoots were pretreated with IBA 5000 mg l^-1 for three seconds followed by culturing in the media.

Abstract

Twenty seven genotypes including two wild relatives of strawberry were evaluated for resistance against leaf spot caused by various fungal species viz.,Phyllosticta, Pestalotia, Hainesia lythri and Phyllosticta fragaricola under natural conditions. None of the genotypes was found to be resistant against leaf spot. However, the cultivar ‘Fern’ showed moderately susceptible reaction whereas the remaining genotypes were either susceptible or highly susceptible, suggesting the need for diversifying the germplasm either through open pollinated seedling selection or through hybridizing genotypes of divergent origin for resistance against leaf spot.

Mechanical damage in oil seeds like soya bean can be induced at any time during harvesting, handling, conditioning and sowing operations. There is relationship between moisture and mechanical damage. In general the low moisture containing seeds are more prone for mechanical damage than the high moisture containing seeds. In this experiment we look for this relationship by measuring seed quality parameters like germination and leakage (electrical conductivity).

Beta vulgaris 2n = 2x=18 is an important vegetable crop in Eastern and Central Europe and it belongs to family Chenopodiaceae. It is of lesser importance in Western Europe and USA where it is known as garden beet. The swollen roots are consumed as vegetable and salad. The other types which are non-horticultural forms are known as sugar beet, mangold and fodder beet.
Origin: Leaf beet is the earliest domesticated form. It is believed to be originated from Beta maritima known as sea beet which is indigenous to Southern Europe. 
Botany: Biennial producing enlarged hypocotyl (roots) and rossette of leaves in first year and flowers and seeds in second year.

Turnip is the root vegetable cultivated in cooler season or temperate regions of the globe. Brassica rapa L 2n = 2x = 20 is formerly known as B. campastris subsp rapifera. Swede (B. napus var. napobrassica) is directly related to turnip.
Origin: It is originated in cooler part of Europe, presumably from biennial oilseed forms. It was known to Greeks and Romans at beginning of Christian era. It was introduced to Britain from France by Romans and into North America by the early European settlers in the 17th century.

Seed processing efficiency (SPE) is one of the important aspects in seed processing. It will help in measuring the potential of the shop floor. It will also help in standardizing activities like screens and improving physical purity. SPE will help to improve the quality of the seed material and help in utilizing the machines at their optimum capacity. SPE may vary among the different crops and even among the varieties.
 
To quantify SPE we need to pass the test sample (bulk-pre processed) through the target machine and enter the details in a processing register. To quantify the SPE we need to follow these mathematical formulae: