eChapters

Maximum potato yield occurs when sufficient P is available during early vegetative development and the entire period of tuber growth. Total plant P uptake increases rapidly during tuber initiation, levels off to a constant rate during tuber bulking, and ceases with plant maturation occurs primarily through the transfer of P reserves from the vine and roots. Phosphorus uptake by potatoes is relatively low compared with uptake of potassium or nitrogen but similar to uptake of sulfur. The amount of P in the soil solution that is readily available for plant uptake is very small compared with the total amount of P in the soil.

A general blanket application of fertilizer leads to its poor efficacy and wastage of costly resources as well as of environmental pollution. This becomes more relevant in case of P as unlike nitrogen applied P remains in soil and adds to its build up. In addition, this has resulted in severe imbalance of nutrients in soil (Kumar et al., 2009).

Keeping this in view, a multilocation experiment was conducted in the major potato growing states of India under the All India Coordinated Research Project on Potato to evaluate suitable dose of P based on soil test on P economy in potato (table 52). Exact quantification of phosphorus fertilizer based on soil test is very important.

Phosphorus is one of the key nutrients required for higher and sustained productivity of potato and its influence on tuber yield is very well established. Phosphatic fertilizers are expensive and in developing countries like India, they are either imported or manufactured using imported raw material. Due to increase in cost in the recent past, there has been a decreasing trend in the amounts of P fertilizer applied in India (Sundara and Natarajan, 1997 and Sundara, 1988). At the same time, soils contain substantial reserves of total P, most of it remains relatively inert, and only less than 10% of soil P enters the plant–animal cycle (Kucey et al., 1989). Upon addition to the soils, soluble phosphates react with the constituents of the soil and form compounds that are less soluble. This conversion depends upon the soil type. In acid soils, the reaction products are aluminium and iron phosphates and in the predominantly calcareous soils, the reaction products are calcium phosphates. As a result most of the P applied (often as much as 90%) is rendered unavailable for crop uptake but is retained in insoluble form. This is the reason that the potato-based cropping systems in different potato growing pockets generally show positive P balance resulting into its build up (Singh et al., 1994). Thus, soils commonly have large reserves of ‘fixed’ P that could support long-term crop requirements if it could be mobilized through appropriate soil management including use of P-solubilizing microbes. The ability of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) to convert insoluble forms of phosphorus to an accessible form is an important trait in sustainable farming for increasing plant yields (Singh and Kapoor, 1994). The beneficial effects of PSB on crop productivity have been widely described. These soil phosphate solubilizing bacteria stay near the roots and make the phosphorus available to plants from soil.

Factors for deterring the Fertilizer Schedule are two factor

Soil Supplying Power: Growing different crops during different seasons alters the soil nutrient status, estimated by soil analysis at the beginning of the season. The soil supplying power increases with legume in rotation, fertilizer application and addition of crop residues. The available nitrogen and potassium in soil after groundnut are higher to initial status of the soil. But after pearl millet, only potassium status in the soil is improved and no changes in P.

Nutrient Uptake by Crops: The total amount of nutrients taken by the crops in one sequence gives an indication of the fertilizer requirement of the system. The balance is obtained by subtracting the fertilizer applied to crops that nutrient taken by the crops.

Residual Effect of Fertilizers: The extent of residues left over in the soil depends on the type of fertilizer used. Phosphatic fertilizer and FYM have considerable residue in the soil, which is useful for subsequent crops. The residues left by potassium fertilizers are marginal. Legumes add nitrogen to the soil in the range of 15 to 20 kg/ha. The amount of nitrogen added depends on the purpose. Green gram grown for grain, contributes 24 and 30 kg N respectively to the succeeding crop. Inclusion of leguminous green manures in the system add 40 kg to 120 kg N/ha. The availability of phosphorous is also increased by incorporation of green manure crops.

Biofertilizers are preparations containing micro-organisms, with capability of mobilizing nutritive elements from non usable form to usable form through biological processes. Bio-fertilizers have definite advantage over chemical fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers supply over nitrogen whereas bio-fertilizers provide in addition to nitrogen, certain growth promoting substances like hormones, vitamins, amino acids, etc, crops have to be provided with chemical fertilizers repeatedly to replenish the loss of nitrogen utilized for crop growth. Bio-fertilizers application in agriculture will have greater impact on organic agriculture and also on the control of environmental pollution, soil health improvement and reduction in input use. Farmers try to increase yields of vegetable crops by mean of heavy nutrition’s. The use of chemical nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers at high levels had an adverse effect on the accumulation of NH4+, NO3-, NO2- and PO4- in vegetable product tissues. Therefore, clean agriculture recently depends upon using biofertilizers as well as organic in order to produce high yields with the best commodity quality without contamination and less accumulation with heavy metals.

The application of high input technologies such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides have improved the production but there is growing concern over the adverse effects of the use of chemicals on soil productivity and environment quality. Thus, integrated nutrient management has become an accepted strategy to bring about improvement in soil fertility and protecting the environment. This strategy utilizes a judicious combination of fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers. Biofertilizer is a natural product carrying living microorganisms derived from the root or cultivated soil. So they don’t have any ill effect on soil health and environment. Besides their role in atmospheric nitrogen fixation and phosphorous solubilisation, these also help in stimulating the plant growth hormones providing better nutrient uptake and increased tolerance towards drought and moisture stress. A small dose of biofertilizer is sufficient to produce desirable results because each gram of carrier of bio-fertilizers contains at least 10 million viable cells of a specific strain. Biofertilizers means the product containing carrier base (solid or liquid)

In order to get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they should not only be applied in proper time and in right manner but any other aspects should also be given careful consideration. Different soils react differently with fertilizer application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different crops are different and even for a single a crop the nutrient requirements are not the same at different stages of growth. The aspects that require consideration in fertilizer application are listed below:

Cation exchange: The ‘soil cations’ essential for plant growth include ammonium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. There are three additional ‘soil cations,’ which are not essential plant elements but affect soil pH. The additional ‘soil cations’ include sodium, aluminum and hydrogen.

The major distinguishing characteristic of cations is their positive charge. Just like a magnet, a positive charge is strongly attracted to a negative charge. When soil particles have a negative charge, the particles attract and retain cations. These soils are said the have a cation exchange capacity. Although most soils are negatively charged and attract cations.

The ‘soil cations’ are further divided into two categories. Ammonium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium are known as the ‘base cations,’ while aluminum and hydrogen are known ‘acid cations.’ Unlike the other base cations, sodium is not an essential element for all plants. Soils that contain high levels of sodium can develop salinity and sodicity problems.

The words ‘base’ and ‘acid’ refer to the particular cation’s influence on soil pH. As you might suspect, a soil with a lot of acid cations held by soil particles will have a low pH. In contrast, a highly alkaline soil predominately consists of base cations.

Cations in the soil compete with one another for a spot on the cation exchange capacity (Table 42 and Fig 18). However, some cations are attracted and held more strongly than other cations. In decreasing holding strength, the order with which cations are held by the soil particles follows: aluminum, hydrogen, calcium, potassium and nitrate, and sodium.

The essential plant nutrients, or essential elements, are listed in the Table 41. It enumerates 16 chemical elements of which the essentiality for plant growth and reproduction has been established according to the criteria formulated by D.I. Arnon and P.R. Stout, 1939. This listing has existed since 1954 with chlorine as the latest addition (cited by Hopkins 1999).

These plant nutrients are classified into various groups:

1.    Major elements and trace elements : Of the 16 listed, 9 are major elements or macronutrients and 7 are trace elements or micronutrients. Major elements are those which are needed by plants for their growth and reproduction in relatively large amounts while trace elements are needed in smaller amounts compared to the former. The major elements are further sub classified into structural elements (carbon, oxygen and hydrogen), primary macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium), and secondary macronutrients (calcium, sulfur, and magnesium). Micronutrients are Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Mo4 and boron (Table 41).

Water quality standards (Classification)

Some countries have established national standards and criteria for evaluation and classification of water quality. The classification of irrigation waters has been made according to one or more of the following criteria.

1.    Salinity or total concentration of soluble salts (EC)
2.    Sodicity hazards (SAR)
3.    Alkalinity hazards (RSC)
4.    Combined evaluation on the basis of EC and SAR by USSL diagram
5.    Combined evaluation on the basis of EC and Adj. SAR
6.    Combined evaluation on the basis of EC, SAR and RSC

The basic philosophy of nutrient management should be to apply fertilizers at rates to ensure high fertilizer use efficiency so that the amount of unutilized fertilizers is reduced to environmentally acceptable levels. Leaching of nitrate into public drinking water supplies has become a national problem. There is no realistic alternative but to use increasing quantities of inorganic fertilizers for maintaining food supplies in order to feed the increasing population. Used properly, fertilizers can, in fact, lead to better environment because greater vegetative growth and higher crop yields leave large quantities of residues in the soil, thus reducing erosion; absorb more carbon dioxide, a major source of green house effect and lessen the need to bring marginal and forest land into cultivation. The declining or stagnating yield trend in India has been attributed to multiple nutrient deficiencies and imbalance of nutrients. Therefore, the most widely recognized alternative is integrated nutrient management (Trehan et al., 2008).

Soil test based fertilizers is the maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from fertilizers, organic manures, green manures, bio-fertilizers, non-conventional sources and crop residues. Soil test based fertilizers  aims at maximization of the use efficiency and minimization of the avoidable losses of nutrients from all the sources such that triple objective of maximization of crop yields, sustenance of soil, water and air quality and improvement of socio-economic conditions of farming community is accomplished.

Irrigation water always contains some soluble salts irrespective of its source. The suitability of waters for a specific purpose depends on the types and amounts of dissolved salts. Some of the dissolved salts or other constituents may be useful for crops. However, the quality or suitability of waters for irrigation purposes is assessed in terms of the presence of undesirable constituents, and only in limited situations is irrigation water assessed as a source of plant nutrients. Some of the dissolved ions, such as NO₃^- are useful for crops.

Collection of water samples

A representative water sample (500 ml) is collected in a glass or polyethylene bottle, which should be properly washed/rinsed with the same water that is being sampled. Floating debris or any other contaminant should be avoided while collecting the sample. After proper labelling (e.g. source of water, date of collection, and type of analysis required), the sample should be sent to the laboratory without undue delay.
Some of the anions such as SO₄ and NO₃ may be quite low in irrigation waters. Hence, the large volume of the sample has to be first concentrated by evaporating it to about 100 ml in order to obtain their detectable amounts.

For plant analysis to be meaningful, collection of particular plant part(tissue) at the right stage of growth is very important. A research worker in soil fertility is generally interested in finding out the nutrient uptake by crop at different stages. The stage at which nutrient uptake is to be studied will vary with different crops. One may also be interested in collecting a plant sample when some abnormality is observed in the plants and a nutrient deficiency or toxicity is suspected. In such cases no time should be lost in collecting the sample otherwise secondary reactions that often take place in the mineral content of plants will conceal the real cause of deficiency or toxicity. In such cases only the affected plants are to be sampled as compared to general sampling technique described below.

For research projects each plot receiving differential fertilizer or some other treatment is to be sampled separately. For general advisory purposes one sample would be good enough for the entire field (not exceeding 2 hectares). One should, however, take care that the sample comes from a field or a part there of having a uniform stand. If a field is patchy and differences in stand and plant growth are obvious, each such area should be sampled separately.

Estimation of organic carbon in soil (Walkley and Black, 1934)

Principle: Soil organic carbon is oxidized to CO₂ by heat of dilution obtained when a known amount of soil is treated with excess of standard K₂Cr₂O₇ in the presence of concentrated H₂SO₄. The excess of K₂Cr₂O₇ not reduced by the organic matter is back titrated with standard ferrous ammonium sulphate in the presence of phosphoric acid or sodium fluoride using diphenyl indicator. At the point colour changes from violet to blue or bright green.

Apparatus: 500 ml conical flasks, Pipettes of 10 and 20 ml, Burette, Balance, Measuring cylinder, Asbestos sheet.

Introduction

Many of the globe’s major food crops viz., wheat, rice and vegetables have reached “yield stagnation” or “yields plateau”. This can be attributed to the land degradation and soil diminishing capacity to supply nutrients at the required rate due to over mining of essential nutrients. Further, imbalance use of fertilizers and lesser use of organic manures over the years have badly affected the soil health. To bring back life to the soil and relieve it from nutrient stress; fertilizers and manures/bio-fertilizers have to be applied in a scientific manner. At the same time, their indiscriminate use can result either in their under utilization and toxicity or leaching to the lower horizons, leading to underground water and create pollution problems. The soil is also the main source of sixteen mineral elements identifies in view of their importance for plant growth. These are N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo and Cl (Tisdale et al., 1985). Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus have been designated as major nutrient elements in order of their removal by the plant; sulphur, calcium and magnesium as secondary nutrients while zinc, copper, iron, manganese and molybdenum are called micro nutrients as these are taken by plant in traces. 
Nutrients need of vegetables depends upon the yield response to applied nutrients from fertilizers, agro-climatic conditions, variety and nutrient availability from the soil pool. The nutrient status of the soil further depends upon the quantity of total and available nutrients present in the soil pool. The soil tests helps in selecting the proper manuring schedule for various crops in a sequence by knowing about the nutrient build up or depletion in the soil profile. The adequacy of soil testing methods to correctly predict the fertilizer needs varies with the soil type, climate/soil moisture and crop species. The rainfall also influences the efficiency of soil testing methods, especially nitrogen and potassium when it becomes imperative to have tissue analysis for modify the fertilizer recommendations. Plant tests also help to identify the nutrient deficiency in standing crop and in the event of deficiency of a particular nutrient helps in taking corrective measures (Sud 
et al., 2008).

Due to increase in population, rapid urbanization, industrialization and shrinking land holdings, there is tremendous pressure on availability of land resources for agriculture, which results in decreased arable land area year after year. The huge gap between present production and future requirements necessitates intensive vegetable production and availability at affordable prices. Vegetable production can be enhanced either by increasing productivity, use of improved cultivars and ago-techniques, bringing additional land under vegetable crops or by promotion of protected cultivation. By adopting protected cultivation, year round availability of quality produces both for domestic use and export can be assured.

Several biotic and abiotic stresses are the major factors responsible for low productivity and poor quality in large number of vegetable crops under open field cultivation more specifically during rainy and post rainy season. The increasing demand of off-season and high quality vegetables in various markets of the big cities had call the attention of the vegetable growers for diversification from traditional ways of vegetable cultivation to modern methods of vegetables cultivation in an agri-business entrepreneurial models. Under the new era of FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in retail these kinds of models are having high potential for betterment of the farmers opting for quality and offseason vegetable cultivation through protected cultivation. Protected cultivation structures are useful for combating both biotic and abiotic stresses that limits the productivity and quality of vegetable crops. This requires careful planning, attention and details about timing of production and moreover, harvest time to coincide with high market prices, choice of varieties adopted to the off season environments, and able to produce economical yields of high quality produce etc.

Introduction

Organic farming per se is not a new concept rather is an age old practice of cultivation crops without synthetics. However, in modern usage it is a type of farming without synthetics but at the same time taking advantage of all the modern agriculture technologies like soil testing, nutrient management, ecofriendly pest management, etc. developing and developed world have different incentives for taking up organic farming. Growing health consciousness among the people of developed world is the prime motive behind interest in organic farming. However, conversion of “by default” organic agriculture into “certified organic” is perspective in the developing world so that farmers get price premium. Whatever the case may be, the area under organic farming as well as demand for organic food/product is increasing both in developing as well as in the developed world.

Organic production is a systems approach. Although many aspects of vegetable production remain the same in both “organic” and “non-organic” or “conventional” systems, there are differences. The major components of production which differ between these two systems include transplant production, soil fertility management, and insect, disease, and weed management. “Organic” usually refers to a crop management system that promotes biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. Organic production concentrates on natural processes and how to manage them. Other materials and products are additions to, not replacements for, management. An organic system takes time to develop. It may be achieved in stages, for example by starting with organic soil amendments and other soil improving procedures. Then, try biological control of pests, some companion plants, etc. Eventually, the entire system will be changed. It will take years to convert to a healthy organic system.

A successful vegetable production industry is very dependent on a sustainable supply of seeds to the growers. At the present time, the seed industry plays an important role in both production and distribution of high quality vegetable seeds.

Successful seed production of a crop depends on a thorough knowledge of the reproductive process of a particular crop. The techniques of seed production must take into account several features of reproduction: whether it is sexual, asexual, or a combination of the both, the nature of floral structures, the amount of pollen transfer, the degree and means of self-incompatibility and the effect of inbreeding on vigour. For most purposes the important consideration to the seed producers is the extent of cross-pollination. It is, therefore, necessary that before engaging himself in seed production, a producer must acquaint himself with the following details of reproduction in the particular crop:

Methods of Reproduction

The method of reproduction in vegetable crop plants may be broadly grouped in to two categories, asexual/vegetative and sexual:

Improved Varieties of Tuber Vegetables

A. POTATO

Improved Varieties of Asparagus

(1) Perfection

Source : Developed at IARI, New Delhi

Maturity : Early

Spears : Large, green, succulent, heavy cropper and uniform in maturity

Production Technology of Asparagus

Climate

Asparagus is temperate season vegetable and bears excellent crop between a temperature range of 15-24ºC for most of the growing season. The ideal day temperature is 25-30^oC and night temperature 15-20^oC. It can tolerate frost up to some extent but continuous freezing is harmful for its growth. Spear initiation occurs at soil temperature of more than 10ºC. Spear elongation is faster at high air temperature. Root and shoot development is reduced below 13ºC and above 29ºC. Due to warm weather, spear tips open prematurely and quality of spears is reduced. Elevation of more than 1000m is good for high yield.

Improved Varieties of Leafy Vegetables

A. AMARANTHUS

Improved Varieties of Root Crops

A. RADISH

A. Asiatic/Tropical Varieties

Improved Varieties of Bulb Crops

A. ONION

Improved Varieties of Peas and Beans

A. VEGETABLE PEA

A. Early Varieties

Improved Varieties of Cucurbits

A. CUCUMBER, MELONS, PUMPKIN AND SQUASHES

Cucumber (Khira)

Improved Varieties of Cole Crops

A. CAULIFLOWER

Improved Varieties of OKRA (Bhindi)

Vegetable research in India is of very recent origin. Research on vegetable crops was started by ICAR with the sanctioning of a nucleus ‘Plant Introduction Scheme’ at IARI, New Delhi in 1947-48. Simultaneously, the ICAR also started such ad-hoc schemes in different states like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Tamil Nadu.

Prior to World War II, entire seeds of temperate vegetables were imported from European countries. When, during World War II, supply of vegetable seeds from Europe suffered a serious setback, the government of India felt the need for production of these seeds within the country. As a result of this, the government of India established a Vegetable Breeding Station at Katrain in Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh in 1949. This station was transferred to Indian Agriculture Research Institute in 1955 to undertake research on improvement of temperate vegetable crops, standardization of their seed production technology and to produce seeds of identified improved varieties of temperate vegetables. This research station is carrying out intensive research on all aspects of temperate vegetables including improvement, production technology and their seed production.

Further, a division of Horticulture was created at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi in 1956-57. However, vegetable research was organized on sound footing with the establishment of the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR) at Bangalore with a full fledged Division of Vegetable Crops in 1968. The vegetable research in India received a further boost when a separate division of Vegetables Crops and Floriculture was started at IARI, New Delhi in 1970. The floriculture work was separated from the division of Vegetable Crop and Floriculture, IARI, New Delhi in 1982 and the division was then named as Division of Vegetable Crops, which was assigned the research work exclusively on different vegetable crops. In the Sixth Five-year Plan, IIHR, Bangalore started two Central Horticulture Experiment Stations, one each at Ranchi, (Bihar) and Godhra (Gujarat) to intensify research on horticultural crops in important tribal areas of the country where research on vegetable crops was also started to meet the specific requirements of these regions. Establishment of Agricultural Universities and All India Coordinated Vegetables Improvement Project gave further fillip to vegetable research in India.

Significant achievements have been made in the food availability throughout the world over the last few decades. The estimated number of people in developing regions suffering from chronic malnutrition has declined (from 946 million people in 1969-71 to 870 million people in 2010-12), as the proportion of malnourished people from 36 percent to 20 percent, even though the world population has increased. Global food supplies (if distributed according to individual requirements) are sufficient to fulfill the energy needs. An estimated 20 percent of the people in developing world are chronically under nourished, consuming too little food to meet even the minimal energy needs. Approximately 192 million children under the age of five years suffer from acute or chronic protein energy malnutrition. According to WHO, 6.9 million children under the age of five died in 2011, from direct or indirect result of hunger and malnutrition. Moreover, more than 2 billion people, mostly women and children are deficient in one or more micronutrients, babies continue to be born mentally retarded as a result of iodine deficiency, children go blind from vitamin-A deficiency and enormous number of women and children are adversely affected by iron deficiency.

The overall growth in food availability resulting from the green revolution over the last two decades has eliminated the threat of famine for India’s entire population. Country’s production of food grains has reached over 257.07 million tonnes. However, malnutrition is still a serious problem in this region. Evidences suggest that micronutrient deficiency is far more prevalent in the area than protein energy malnutrition. The International Food Policy Research Institute has reported a rising trend in micronutrient deficiencies, which is becoming more serious than malnutrition from lack of major nutrients. Thus, the emphasis is now shifting from supply of basic food (calories & protein) towards supply of balanced diet (calories, protein & micronutrients which includes vitamins and minerals).

Vegetables occupy an important place in diversification of agriculture and have played a pivotal role in the food and nutritional security of every growing population of our country. Vegetables are becoming important as cash crops for urban and export markets. Looking at the national scenario, vegetables have tremendous strength in terms of natural and genetic resources. A large number of wild taxa and indigenous germplasm are available in the country and many of them have not being fully capitalized. Though efforts have been made to tap the variability present among the vegetable crops in the country and many varieties have been released, it needs further attention so that the problems of biotic and abiotic stresses can also be minimized. The vast diversity of land, soil and agro climatic conditions prevalent in India also offers a unique competitiveness to grow wide range of vegetables. During the last four decades, India has made commendable progress in vegetable production (from 23.45 million tonnes in 1961-65 to 166.47 million tonnes in 2015-16), securing the position of second largest production of vegetables in world next only to China. The total world vegetable production is 1159.88 million tonnes from an area of 59.16 million hectares. In this, India contributes about 15.88 % with the production equal to 166.47 million tonnes from an area of 9.29 million hectares (NHB, 2015-16).

1. Potato

Scientific name: Solanum tuberosum L.

Family: Solanaceae

Origin: South America

Chromosome No.: 2n = 4x = 48

Introduction

Potato is one of the four major food crops of the world and is also a very popular vegetable crop. It is extensively cultivated in China, Russian Federation, Ukarine, Poland, Ireland, Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, France, Spain, South America, India and USA. Potato was brought from Peru to Spain by the Spaniards in 1565 when it was widely grown in Spain and Italy. They were probably brought to England about 1586 by Sir Francis Drake. Potato was introduced in India in early 17^th century probably by the Portuguese. Now it is one of the principal cash crops of India.

Importance and use

• Potato is the fourth major food crops of the world after rice, wheat and maize.
• Being a major source of carbohydrate it is often used as a substitute for cereals.
• It is one of the major vegetable crops of the world and is grown in almost every country.
• In India, it is considered as a staple vegetable and used either alone or mixed with other vegetables.
• Potato is used as vegetable in various forms such as, boiled, mashed, baked, fried and cooked in sambar and different curries of vegetable, fish and meat.
• Potato is processed into different commercially used dehydrated, canned and fried products like, shredded potato, sliced potato, chips, flakes, French fries, finger chips, granules, disc, cubes, flour, etc.
• It is used for several industrial purposes such as production of starch, alcohol, dextrin, glucose, etc.
• Potato starch is a large grained starch and contains 25 % amylase and 73 % amylopectin and high phosphate content.

1. Seedling management in the nursery

Seedlings of many seed propagated vegetable crops like, tomato, brinjal, chillies, sweet pepper, cauliflower, cabbage, knolkhol, broccoli, Brussels sprout, kale, endive, chicory, celery, lettuce, parsley, onion, etc. are first raised in the nursery beds before transplanted in the main field although, many of these crops like, tomato, sweet pepper, onion, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, etc. are also direct seeded using precision seed drills in the USA, Japan, the Netherlands, Italy and other European countries. Many seed propagated vegetable crops viz., okra, peas, beans, radish, carrot, beet, turnip and all the cucurbits (e.g. bitter gourd, bottle gourd, pumpkin, cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, snake gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, etc.) are conventionally grown through direct seeding in the main field.

Transplant groups

1. Plants easy to transplant: They form new roots rapidly, put forth shoots rather slowly and absorb water readily e.g. beet, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, Swiss chard, lettuce and tomato.

2. Plants transplanted with moderate ease: This group replace roots and grow shoots a bit slower than the previous group and do not absorb water very efficiently e.g. celery, brinjal, onion, pepper, leek and cauliflower.

Introduction

The book has been framed as a text book cum vegetable production manual for both under graduate and post graduate students of Agriculture/ Horticulture as well as commercial vegetable production professionals. This book has been oriented on different management practices of vegetable culture in open field condition viz., Classification of vegetable crops, Management of seedlings in the nursery, Water managent, Plant nutrient management, Pollination management, Integrated pest management, Biological management of diseases, Weed management and Production technology of different vegetable crops.

Classification of vegetable crops

Vegetables are defined as herbaceous plant origin material with generally low calorific value providing micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants, fibre and induce alkaline reaction inside human body. Vegetable crops are not only botanically different but also their cultural and climatic adaptation shows wide variability. It is, therefore, necessary to classify the vegetable crops for their easy recognition. Vegetable crops can conveniently be classified “Botanically” for the purpose of vegetable breeding and according to “Method of culture” from the point of crop husbandry.

Botanical classification

The crops used for vegetable purpose in the world belong to 1200 species under 78 families and of them, more than 860 species under 59 families belong to dicotyledoneae and about 340 species under 19 families belong to monocotyledoneae. In the tropical and subtropical parts of the world, about 90 species of vegetable crops are cultivated, but hardly 20 of them are commercially important.

In the present botanical classification, over 140 different vegetable crops under 6 monocotyledoneae and 20 dicotyledoneae families have been included.

19.1 DEFINITION OF ORGANIC FARMING

1.According to IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement), Organic Farming definition includes all agricultural system that promote the environmentally, socially and ecologically sound production system of food and fibres. IFOAM stresses and supports the development of self- supporting system on local and regional level.

2.As per the definition of the USDA study team on organic farming “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.

3.In another definition FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”.

18.1 INTRODUCTION

The decline in productivity of old and senile orchards existing in abundance has become a matter of serious concern for the orchardists, traders as well as scientists. In India 30-35% area under fruit crops is occupied by old, senile, and pest-and-disease- affected orchards. For overcoming the problem of unproductive and uneconomic orchards existing in abundance, large scale uprooting and replacement with new plantations will be a long term and expensive strategy. Thus, rejuvenation of old and senile orchards is a good alternative.

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Bearing habit indicates position of f lower bud with respect to vegetative growth of the plant after cessation of juvenility. Different fruit trees have different bearing habits. The knowledge of bearing habits will be of much importance for regulating the bearing of any plant by means of pruning. Terminal bearers are not normally pruned, whereas in case of lateral bearers pruning certainly increase the bearing, as it encourages the sprouting of lateral buds. Fruit trees may bear the fruits either terminally on a long or short growth, laterally on present or past season growth or adventitiously from any point on the trunk or root. The relative position of a fruit with reference to its potential bud giving rise to f lower or inf lorescence in the shoot is known as bearing habit. Knowledge on the bearing habit is a pre-requirement before performing pruning in any fruit crop (particularly in ber, guava, grape etc.). Proper understanding of bearing habits helps a lot in manipulating time and period of f lowering and fruiting which consequently inf luence harvesting and yield of better-quality fruits.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Mulch, a technical term, means ‘covering of soil’. A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. It may be applied to bare soil or around existing plants. Mulches of manure or compost will be incorporated naturally into the soil by the activity of worms and other organisms. Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more favourable conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production. While natural mulches such as leaf, straw, dead leaves and compost have been used for centuries, during the last 60 years the advent of synthetic materials has altered the methods and benefits of mulching. The research as well as field data available on effect of synthetic mulches make a vast volume of useful literature. In this manner it plays a positive role in water conservation. The suppression of evaporation also has a supplementary effect; it prevents the rise of water containing salt, which is important in countries with high salt content water resources.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

Cropping system is defined as a cropping pattern followed on a farm and its interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and production technology. In other words, cropping system refers to a combination of crops in time and space. When annual crops are considered, a cropping system usually means the combination of crops within a given year (Willey et al., 1989). This cropping system might provide insurance against crop failure by reducing disease (Fininsa and Yuen, 2002) and insect incidence (Gahukar, 1989) or against unstable market prices by planting two or more crops under intercropping and thus, reducing the risk of unexpected changeable prices. Intercropping in scientific way should be viewed from a theme of competition to one of collaboration with mutually beneficial relation with proper planning to get more return from limited natural resources. Legumes have been the common intercrops in any intercropping system owing to their short duration, N-fixing ability etc. Even though non-leguminous vegetables require longer duration than legumes and are non-N-fixers, they can also be suitable as intercrops because of their high profitability and higher yields.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

India is conferred with a varied agro-climatic condition which are highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamental, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, areca nut, cashew and cocoa (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, GOI, 2008). India is next only to China in area and production of vegetables and occupies prime position in the production of caulif lower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world. After achieving food security, it is being increasingly felt that India needs to achieve nutritional security for betterment of its population. In achieving nutritional security fruits and vegetables play an important role (Ganeshmurthy et al.2011). Although we have achieved good production levels of fruits and vegetables, the present production of fruits and vegetables may not be enough to meet out the demand. To feed the ever-increasing population in a sustainable way a tremendous effort will have to be made to increase the production of fruits and vegetables both horizontally and vertically through a rational and balanced use of production inputs, specially the mineral fertilizers. Soil fertility is a key factor for successful crop production, and it is a measure of capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients. The importance of soil fertility and fertilizer management is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping with high yielding cultivars have increased the food production and reduced the food shortage, but it has also brought in numerous problems of soil fertility, soil and water pollution. On the other hand, fast depletion of nutrients due to over exploitation, a wide-spread deficiency of N, P, K and S coupled with micro-nutrients deficiencies especially Zn and boron has been noticed in many soils. Further deforestation, shifting cultivation, burning of trees, bushes, grasses and cow dung, soil erosion, soil degradation, nutrient losses, excessive fertilizer application, leaching losses etc., have aggravated the depletion of soil fertility status. It is being realized that the future of Indian agriculture is closely related to scientific management of soil fertility along with judicious and efficient use of fertilizers. Soil fertility and nutrient management is one of the important factors that have a direct impact on crop yield and quality. Soil test reports help in determining soil organic matter, pH, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, and levels of important macronutrients (phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and micronutrients (boron, zinc, etc.). These reports also help estimating lime or sulphur application rates to increase or reduce soil pH, respectively. Maintaining a soil pH between 6.0 and 7.0 is recommended for most crop rotations that include vegetable crops.

13.1 INTRODUCTION

Weed is defined as an unwanted plant growing at a place where it is not desired. Weeds are unwanted and undeserved plants that interfere with the utilization of the land and water resources and thus adversely affect crop production and human welfare. Thus, a plant out of its place or a plant growing where it is not desired at that time is a weed. Weed has no species, but name was suggested as a useless and harmful plant that persistently grows where it is quite unwanted. According to Jethro Tull, the father of Weed Science, weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant, growing out of their proper place, which interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions. Of the total losses caused by pests, weeds have a major share (30%). They reduce the crop yield and decrease the quality of produce and hence reduce the market value of the turnout. Weeds are a major problem to horticultural production as they take advantage of their initial slow growth rate. Weeds reduce crop yield, lower their quality, act as alternate host of many pests/diseases and also have allelopathic effects on crops. Weeds also interfere with vital farm operations like weeding, fertilizer application, herbicide application and harvesting. Both annual and perennial weeds are common in their actions reducing the productivity of fruit trees. Weeds also provide shelter to various pathogens by becoming an alternate or collateral host of invaded crops by a number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases.

The worst weeds found in the world are Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Echinochloa crusgalli, Echinochloa colona, Eleusine indica, Sorghum halepense, Imperata cylinderica, Eichhornia crassipes, Portulaca oleracia, Chenopodium album, Digitaria sanguinalis, Convolvulus arvensis, Avena fatua, Amaranthus hybridus, Amaranthus spinosus, Cyperus esculentus, Paspalum cojugatum, Rottboelia exaltata (Rana and Rana, 2016). All of these weeds are found in India. It has been reported that about 36-42% losses may occur due to inadequate management of weeds in apple (El- Metwally and Hafez, 2007). Therefore, management of weeds in all agro-ecosystems is crucial to sustain our crop productivity and to ensure the food security to the rapidly increasing population.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Water is a factor of prime importance in agriculture industry. Water management is one of the largest and most important inputs into an orchard. An efficient water management refers to artificial application of water, i.e., irrigation in crop root zones in case of soil moisture deficit and removal of water, i.e., drainage from the root zone in case of excess so as to provide the crops a most optimum soil moisture regime for best production. It means how best we are in irrigating and dewatering our fields so that plants are protected from stress as well as water logging (Goswami, 2015). Water resources are continuously overburdened with excessive drafts and water sources are shrinking at faster rate. Groundwater levels are falling at the rates faster than ever. Under this type of circumstances, judicious use of water should be given due attention for water conservation and also in increasing water productivity. Area under horticultural plantations is increasing at exponential rate. The unproductive uplands and low productive midlands and lowlands are brought under fruit based horticultural plantations. For a profitable orchard enterprise, a well-planned irrigation system and efficient water management practice are of utmost importance. Horticultural sector, which includes vegetables, f lowers and fruits, has enormous potential for development owing to varying agro-climatic conditions in India. There is tremendous scope for increase in productivity and quality of horticultural crops, which is necessary to compete in this modern competitive world market. There are many production technologies available to increase the per unit vegetable production and also to increase its quality. One of the widely acceptable, reliable and cost- effective technologies is pressurized irrigation.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Plant growth regulators have remained an important component in horticulture from time immemorial because they were effective means of quantitative as well as qualitative improvement in growth and development of crops. Plant Growth Regulators (PGR) are diverse group of organic compounds other than nutrients, produced artificially or by plants which in low concentrations promote, inhibit or modify the physiological process in plant. The term includes both naturally occurring phytohormones as well as synthetic compounds. These are produced naturally in higher plants, controlling growth or other physiological functions at a site remote from its place of production and active in minute amounts. Plant Growth Regulators are used in different forms like liquid, powder, paste etc. “Hormone” is Greek word derived from “hormao”, which means to stimulate. Thimone (1948) suggested the use of term ‘phytohormones’ as the organic substance, which are produced naturally in plants, synthesised in one Part And usually translocated to other part wherein every small quantity affects the growth and other physiological function of the plants. To distinguish them from the animal hormones they are termed as phytohormones. Auxin was the first hormone to be discovered in plants and at one time considered to be only naturally occurring plant growth hormone. The role of plant growth regulators in various physiological processes such as seed germination, f lowering, fruiting, seed development, fruit ripening and yield etc. in different crop plants is well established (Kiran et al., 2011). There are five classical phytohormones: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid. Besides classical phytohormones a variety of other compounds that play roles in plant growth and development have also been identified, including jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, brassinosteroids and polyamines (Basra, 2000). The application of plant growth regulators in agriculture has started in 1930 in the United States. Ethylene, a naturally occurring substance, is one of the first plant growth regulators being discovered and used successfully for enhancing f lower production in pineapple (Fishel, 2006). Its toxic effects to human beings are low.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Most botanists identify trees by their leaves, f lowers and fruit. However, the plant architecture specialist is interested in trunks, branches and twigs. All types of fruit tree do not require pruning, e.g., mango, sapota, while some fruit trees can grow well naturally, e.g., pineapple, papaya as they do not require pruning. Most deciduous trees like apple, pear, almond etc. and grapes, ber, fig, citrus, pomegranate, guava etc. require pruning to train them for desired shape.

10.2 TRAINING

Training is an operation by which the plant is made to develop an orderly structure or frame work. This is done by staking, tying, supporting, propping, trailing or spreading on certain structure with or without pruning of plant. Training is usually done when plants are young. Bending, twisting, decapitations are done by using springs of hard wire, where it is required. It is a physical technique which controls the shape, size and direction of plant growth known as training or in other words, training in effect is orientation of plant in space through techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Establishment of an orchard incurs long term investment for which it needs a very critical planning. As it is a long-term investment, plants planted in the orchard should suit to the prevailing climatic condition of that area. The land remains occupied as long as 40 to 50 years. Any mistake committed during initial year is hard to rectify later on. Proper layout of the orchard ensures optimum utilisation of land and resources for successive economic production. It becomes easy for different inter-cultural operations, harvesting and transportation of the produces. Uniform distribution of plants in the selected land in various systems of planting is done after proper layout.

9.2 LAYOUT

The proper layout of orchard aims at accommodating maximum number of trees per unit land area, maintaining adequate space for proper development of the trees and convenient orchard management practices.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Orchard is a place or a piece of land where different kinds of fruit plants are planted in orderly manner and managed efficiently for production of successive yield to get assured economic return. An orchard being capital-intensive and long-term venture careful planning, layout, selection of site, preliminary operations etc. are to be done. It is easy to establish an orchard considering its features critically but difficult to manage afterwards. It needs high managerial skills and technically skilled manpower to carry out different orchard operations. Any lapses in management can lead to incur heavy loss.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Gardening is a practice of growing different kinds of horticultural crops in a particular land area as a part of horticulture either for consumption or sale, export, beautification etc. Basing on the crops grown, gardens are named accordingly, e.g., for raising vegetables, it is vegetable gardens; for fruit crops, it is orchard; for plantation crops, it is estate plantation; for ornamental plants, it is gardening and landscape etc. The history of gardening is not new. In ancient time kings, emperors, rulers, sages were establishing different types of gardens for different purposes.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The Climate and soil play important role in growth and development of the plant. Growers in general and fruit growers in particular should have adequate knowledge of the effect of various soil and climatic conditions on raising horticultural crops. Horticultural crops cannot be grown in all types of soil and climate. Hence zone- wise cultivation is made. Climate includes a number of parameters like temperature, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, wind, hail and light whereas soil covers factors like moisture content, texture, soil reaction, nutrient content, chemical composition and soil temperature.

6.2 SOIL

Soil is a thin outer covering of the earth surface. It is the natural resource directly developed by different natural forces acting on natural materials. Soil serves as a base and support for plant growth. It is a basic medium for plant growth and supplies nutrients for growing plants. Soil is the home of the plant root and the reservoir for essential nutrients and water for growth and development of crop plants.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial investment is a well-realized factor for persons engaged in horticulture field. So, nurseries have great demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and grafts. But in general, good quality and assured planting material at reasonable price is not available many a times. Nursery is the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. The difficulty of procuring tree seeds and their rising cost makes it necessary to find means to increase seedling survival and growth.

Raising a nursery needs a great skill. Nursery business has become an agro- business for the unemployed youths. Generally, various commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts of genuine type. So, nursery raising is quite a remunerative enterprise.

Nursery is a special place where seeds are sown, plants are propagated, grown, nurtured to usable size for planting or for sale. Nurseries provide the necessary control of moisture, light, soil and predators and allow production of healthy and hardy seedlings.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

India enjoys a wide range of climates and agro-meteorological zones which are suitable for growing various kinds of horticultural crops like fruits, vegetables, f lowers, spices and condiments, plantation crops, and medicinal and aromatic plants.

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices in the world. India stands second both in production of fruits and vegetables next to China. China contributes 21.2% in the world fruit production whereas India produces 12.6%. When we think of vegetables, China produces 49.5% and India produces 14.09%. India is the largest producer of Mango, Banana, Papaya, Coconut, Arecanut, and Cashewnut in the world. In the country, Andhra Pradesh (13.0%) is the leading state in fruit production followed by Maharashtra (11.2%). In case of vegetables, Uttar Pradesh stands first occupying 15.1% share followed by West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh in the range of 14.6% and 10% respectively. In cut flower production West Bengal ranks first.

Total horticultural production for the year 2017–18 was 311.71 million tonnes from cropping area of 25.43 million hectares of land and an estimated production for the crop year 2018-19 is 314.87 million tonnes from an area of 25.6 million hectares.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Life cannot be sustained without adequate nourishment. Human beings need adequate food for growth, development and to lead an active and healthy life. Animals satisfy basic food requirement mainly through natural selection. But human beings have access to a wide range of foods to choose to make up their diet. Since all foods are not of same quality from nutritional point of view, man’s ability to meet his nutritional need and maintenance of good health depend upon type and quantity of foods he is able to include in his diet to satisfy hunger. Human beings need a wide range of nutrients to perform various functions in the body and to lead a healthy life. Several reports have shown that adequate intake of fruits and vegetables forms an important part of a healthy diet and low fruit and vegetable intake constitutes a risk factor for chronic diseases such as cancer, coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke and cataract formation. The nutrients include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. The foods containing these nutrients which we consume daily are classified as cereals, legumes, nuts and oil seeds, fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products and f lesh foods like fish, meat and poultry. Some foods provide only a single nutrient and some multiples. Scientific evidence indicates that frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables can prevent oesophageal, stomach, pancreatic, bladder and cervical cancers and that a diet high in fruits and vegetables could prevent 20% of most types of cancers. Reports indicate that increasing individual fruit and vegetable consumption by 600 g per day could reduce the global burden of stroke by 19% and decrease the risk of coronary heart diseases by 31% respectively. Realizing the food value of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommends per capita use of 120g fruits and 280g vegetables per day.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Owing to a varied agro-ecological and eco- edaphic condition prevalent in one or other part of the country, quite a large number of crops are grown in different parts of India. India is rich in bio-diversity with four hotspots out of twenty-five in the world. About 356 domesticated plant species having economic and botanical importance and 326 species with their wild relatives are found in Indian sub-continent. Besides the above, 9500 other plant species are also available. More than 50 different types of fruits, 50 different types of vegetables, 95 types of spices and condiments, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and ornamental crop plants have been recorded. To avoid confusion and identity, the horticultural plants are grouped into different categories based on similarity or dissimilarities. Grouping of the crop plants with similar characteristics is referred as classification.