eChapters

In the 14th century, the term “parsnip” was borrowed into Middle English as a modification of the Old French word “pasnaie,” which was derived from the Latin noun “pastinaca,” which meant “parsnip” or “carrot.” This history is still reflected in the scientific name for the parsnip, “Pastinaca sativa.” The parsnip is a native of Eurasia; it has been farmed by the Romans and has been used as a vegetable since antiquity, but there is some misunderstanding between parsnips and carrots in historical texts. Prior to the arrival of cane sugar in Europe, it was employed as a sweetener. Parsnips are carrot-shaped root vegetables that are cream-colored and belong to the parsley family. Although they can be eaten fresh, they are more commonly roasted, boiled, fried, or steamed. The thin, tan peel of parsnips is usually peeled before use, revealing white flesh beneath.

In fruits, vegetables, and their products, the sugars are estimated as reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, and total sugars. Reducing sugars in fruits and their products represent glucose and fructose. A combination of reducing and non-reducing sugars gives total sugars, whereas non-reducing sugars mainly sucrose are calculated after deducting the value of reducing sugars from the total sugars as invert sugar and multiplying the remainder with a factor of 0.95. Many fruit, vegetables, and their products like jam, jelly, juice, preserve, candy, fruit toffees, etc., containing substantial amounts of sugars, are estimated as a routine by using Lane and Eynon’s method using Fehling’s solution. However, for products having a smaller quantity of sugars, more precise methods like colorimetric methods can be used.
Method: Lane and Eynon’s Method
Principle: Invert sugar reduces the copper in Fehling’s solution to red, insoluble cuprous oxide. The sugar content in a food sample is estimated by determining the volume of the unknown sugar solution required to completely reduce a known volume of Fehling’s solution. Glucose, fructose and other] sugars capable of reducing oxidizing agents are called reducing sugars and this property is used for the estimation of sugars.

The pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb, Cucurbitaceae) is an Indian tropical vegetable crop. It’s called as parwal, palwal, or parmal in different parts of India and Bangladesh, and it’s one of the region’s most significant vegetables. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and some hilly portions of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are among the states where the crop is commonly farmed. The entire cultivated area is 56 million hectares, while the total production is 798 million hectares (2018-19). Due to its well-established dioecism, perennial nature, and vegetative modes of multiplication, the pointed gourd is physically unique from other cucurbitaceous species.

Variety is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced either sexually or asexually retains their characters. The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. The factors that are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production are :

• Developmental Variation
• Mechanical Mixtures
• Mutations
• Natural Crossing
• Genetic drift
• Minor Genetic Variation
• Selective influence of Diseases
• Techniques of the Breeder
• Breakdown of male sterility
• Improper/defective seed certification System

7.1. Okra or Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Okra (Bhindi) is a member of Malvaceae family, earlier known as Hibiscus esculentus, and is an annual vegetable crop grown from seeds in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Okra, also known as “lady finger” or “gumbo”, is a highly nutritious green edible pod vegetable. Botanically, this perennial flowering plant belongs to the mallow family but is grown as an annual. It is named scientifically as Abelmoschus esculentus. Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and India is suggested to be the secondary centre of origin. There are four species under Abelmoschus genus which includes both cultivated and wild forms. They are A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus. In India, Okra is widely cultivated in states of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar.

Cultivars/Varieties: Okra varieties differ in growth habit, height of plant, presence of purple pigmentation and ridges on fruit. The popular varieties under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika, Azad Kranti, Co 1, MDU1, Gujarat Bhindi 1, Harbhajan Bhindi, Hisar Unnat, Parbhani Kranti, Perkins Long Green, Punjab 7, Punjab 8, Punjab Padmini, Pusa A 4, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani, Red Bhindi, TN Hybrid 8 and Varsha Uphar. Besides, a number of hybride from many private sector agencies/seed companies are marketed. Of these, Varsha, Vijay, Adhunik, Panchali, Hybrid No. 6,7 and 8, Nath Sobha, Supriya, Sungro 35, Aroh 1, - 2, -3, -9 and are more popular.

Uses

Different parts of the plant are used for different purposes. Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Leaves and seeds are considered as valuable traditional medicine. Abelmoschus moschatus is also called ‘musk okra’ a medicinal plant belonging the same family. The leaves and new shoots of this plant is also used as vegetable. The aromatic seeds of this plant are aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, cardio tonic, antispasmodic and used in the treatment of and intestinal complaints and anxiety.

As early as the 16th century, rhubarb was farmed and marketed for therapeutic purposes. According to History of Fruit, by the 19th century, rhubarb had acquired prominence as a food and vegetable source, with a redder stem and sweeter flavour. Rhubarb is a native of Central Asia, and knowledge of its therapeutic properties dates back five thousand years in China. It was also widely used by Arabs, Greeks, and Romans in antiquity. It came as no surprise to Marco Polo when he discovered it in China in 1271.

Botany and taxonomy: Rhubarb refers to the fleshy, edible stalks (petioles) of Rheum species and hybrids (culinary rhubarb) of the Polygonaceae family, which are cooked and eaten. Rhubarb refers to the entire plant, which is an herbaceous perennial with short, thick rhizomes. The big, triangular leaves are inedible due to high quantities of oxalic acid and throne glycosides. 

Introduction

Increasing concern about climate change and global warming has created immense awareness among society about green house gas and its reduction. Irrespective of the geographical location, population density and economic development of any region, there is a huge scope for addressing the green house gas emission. Cities have a key role to play in the global agenda for addressing the challenge of climate change. Today, approximately half of the world’s population lives in cities; by 2050, that proportion will probably have increased to two-thirds. India has the highest rate of change of the urban population and will remain above 2% annually for the next three decades. At this rate, an estimated 854 million people will live in Indian cities by 2050.

Gangana(Grewia tenax) is a deciduous tropical shrub widely distributed in arid and semi-arid region. In western Rajasthan, the natural habitat of this shrub is buried pediments, hills and pediplains (Bhandari, 1971). It does best on deep sandy loam, and can grow in very shallow, skeletal, gravelly or clay soils. It has been reported that the species grow abundantly (density = 678 individuals per ha.) in hilly waste lands of Kailana, Jodhpur. Sharma (1997) reported that its efficient root system can penetrate into minute rock crevices. It is extremely drought hardy and can withstand high temperature in hot arid climate. It tolerates frost well but plant growth is slow in arid region. Mostly fruits for sale in the local markets are collected from wild stands. It is underutilized species (Gebauer et al., 2007), the major limitations to the development as a horticultural crop is the lack of detailed information, particularly the genotype, physiology and ecology (Gebauer et al., 2007). Due to its drought hardy and dense root system, it seems promising species in arid region. It has good fodder value for small ruminants. It is naturally grown in range lands, orans, and hilly track of Aravalli. It is untapped plant species and its potential should be exploited.

Seed Production

Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate care is given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop management techniques. The benefits of seed production are

• Higher income
• Higher quality seed for next sowing

The preservation of food in common salt or in vinegar is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient methods of preserving fruits and vegetables. Pickles are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a meal. They stimulate the flow of gastric juice and thus help in digestion. They are prepared with salt, vinegar, oil or with a mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar.

Momordica dioica, also known as bristly balsam pear, prickly carolaho, teasle gourd, and kantola, is a flowering plant of the Cucurbitaceae/gourd family that is commonly known as spiny gourd or spine gourd. It is consumed as a vegetable throughout India and parts of South Asia. It is valuable commercially and is exported and utilised locally. The fruits are sometimes served with meat or fish and are prepared with spices or fried. Underground tubers are used to proliferate it. Small leaves, small yellow flowers, and small, dark green, spherical or oval fruits characterise this plant. It is dioecious, which means there are separate male and female organisms.

In India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, and tropical Africa, it is widely grown. In India, there are four species of bitter gourd that belong to the genus Momordica.

Botany and taxonomy: It is an annual climber vine with woody, thick stems that can grow up to 20 metres long, large, heart-shaped leaves, large, creamy to pale yellow flowers that are single, ovoid, large, dark green fruits that can grow up to 20 cm long and weigh up to 1.5 kilogrammes, periphery with smooth thorns, yellow turned orange when ripe, and black seeds. The leaves, petals, and seeds of this plant are edible and can be eaten as a vegetable.

• Useful plant parts: Fruits, leaves, flowers, tuberous root and seeds.
• Medicinal uses: To treat Ulcers, lumbago, fractures, bronchial asthma and bleeding piles.

The important events involved in seed development and maturation include

• Pollination
• Fertilization
• Development of the fertilized ovule by cell division
• Accumulation of reserve food material
• Loss of moisture content

These beans are mostly found in China, Korea, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Indonesia, and are not frequently cultivated for commercial purposes. Sword bean pods can reach a length of over a foot and a width of one to two inches. It is grown as a minor vegetable for local use throughout South and Southeast Asia, particularly in India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. Sword bean is typically planted as an annual vegetable crop because it is a perennial climbing legume. Sword bean is grown for its soft pods, which can be eaten raw or cooked.

Potting and repotting is an essential practice to be done in a nursery to maintain the expected vigour of the plant. When a seedling from a seedbed or plant from a flat bed or raised bed is planted in a pot, it is called potting. The same term is utilized when the bulbs of bulbous plants are planted in a pot. When a plant is transferred from one pot to another pot, it is called repotting. At the time of repotting the plants may be planted in a large pot or in the same sized pot. Repotting is necessary when

1. Plant is grown for a season or a year in the same pot and becomes pot bound resulting in extensive growth of roots in rooting media and there is very little scope for further fresh growth.
2. When a plant is overgrown and requires separation or division.
3. When soil gets depleted of its nutrients.
4. Repotting affords an opportunity to the roots to form a new root growth, as repotted soil contains sufficient amounts of nutrients and good aeration.

44.1. Aim

To conduct practical on processing of tea and coffee.

44.2. Theory

Tea is an evergreen woody perennial grown in many Asian countries including China, Japan, Java, Sumatra and India. The plant produces dark green, small shiny leaves with white blossom. In post harvest and manufacturing practices for tea, only mechanical and physical processes are allowed with natural fermentation. It can be manufactured by orthodox, CTC (crush, tear and curl) processing.

Coffee is an important beverage used all over the world. Brazil and Columbia are the largest coffee producers in the world. Coffee is harvested in one of two ways; strip picking (entire crop is harvested at one time either by machine or by hand); selective picking (only the ripe berries are picked individually by hand) during dry season when cherries are bright red, glossy and firm. After picking, the coffee can be prepared either by dry method which produces natural coffee or by wet method which produces washed coffee.

A hybrid is the first generation progeny of a cross between two genetically different identical inbred lines. The individual lines are known as inbreds.  Ineffective cross-pollination is a major constraint in a commercial production of hybrid seeds in many crop species. In such crops manual pollination is the way to produce hybrid seeds. Eg. Cotton. In the case of rice it is highly self-pollinated crop and cross-pollination is a big problem. The increased vigour, uniformity and yield of F1 hybrid have been exploited in most crops where the pollination system allows for convenient and economic cross hybridization.  This system is called breeding tool in exploiting the hybrid vigour.

The term heterosis from Greek means hetero different, osis-condition was coined by skull (1914).

Heterosis or hybrid vigour, refers to the increase or decrease in vigour of off spring (hybrid) over parents. Usually, theses two terms are used synonymous.   But hybrid vigour refers to increased vigour; Heterosis both increased and decreased vigour.

Superiority of the hybrid as hybrid vigour and the mechanism by which this superiority is developed is heterosis (Rangaswamy, 1998).

Introduction

Eggplant or aubergine {Solanum melongena L. Solanaceae), is indigenous to a vast area stretching from northeast India and Burma, to Northern Thailand, Laos, Viet nam and Southwest China and wild plants can still be found in these locations. There is a wealth of eggplant common names. Eggplant is a major fruit vegetable with world production exceeding 31 million tonnes (Mt). Leading producers are China (17 Mt) and India (8 Mt), Egypt (1 Mt), Turkey (0.9 Mt), Japan and Italy (0.4 Mt). Eggplant is particularly favoured in Asia where it has been cultivated for millennia, and in India it is considered King of Vegetables. Brinjal, native to India, shares 31 % area (5.1 × 10⁵ ha) and 28% production (82 × 10⁵ t) of the world (Anon., 2003). It contributes 9% of the total vegetable production in the country. Three states/provinces viz. Orissa (1.41 × 10⁵ ha), West Bengal (1.29 × 10⁵ ha) and Bihar (0.72 × 10⁵ ha) cover 67% of total brinjal area in India (Anon., 2006). It is widely adaptive and highly productive (17.78 t/ha) crop of tropical and sub-tropical regions. It is comparable with tomato for nutritional values like vitamin C, iron and fiber, thereby, can play an important role in combating malnutrition in under-nourished regions (Singh et al., 2001). However, genetic improvement, production technology, post harvest handling and plant protection measures are important for increasing the production, productivity and consumption of brinjal.

Equatorial Asia is home to winged beans (Geneva). On atrip to Thailand, Baker Creek’s founder, Jere Gettle, first observed flying beans. Because the winged bean is a tropical crop from the tropics, it takes a long time to flower, setting pods right before frost in our Missouri environment. The winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) is a tropical herbaceous legume plant also known as cigarillas, goa bean, four-angled bean, four-cornered bean, manila bean, princess bean, asparagus bean, and dragon bean. From the Philippines and Indonesia to India, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka, winged bean thrives in hot, humid equatorial climates. It’s well-known, yet it’s only farmed in limited quantities in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea.

It is not just enough to produce fruit and ornamental plants in a nursery, but it is also very much important to consider the post production management practices like harvesting, packing, storage and marketing of nursery plants for successful industry.

Harvesting: Harvesting is one of the important factors considered, when nurserymen are producing seeds, bulbs, etc. The seeds or bulbs should be harvested at proper maturity stages depending on the plant species.

Seeds are generally harvested when they are fully ripe. In some of the annuals and perennials, seeds are likely to fall from the plant at ripening either due to bursting of the fruit/ capsule or due to wind. (calendula, balsam). In such cases, it is better to cover with muslin cloth or butter paper bags. Bulbs, corms and tubers are carefully dug out without injury, along with cormels or bulblets.

Packaging: The package should provide a convenient mode used for marketing and distribution. It protects the contents from undue damage during distribution. It is important that appropriate packaging should be used to preserve quality of material along with maximum survival during transit. Proper packaging of plant material (fruit plants/ ornamental plants/seeds) ensures quality during storage, distribution and transport.