eChapters

3.1 Introduction

Diffusion is a broader term, which encompasses unplanned as well as planned and directed spread of an innovation. In this chapter, the emphasis is on dissemination of integrated pest management (IPM) technologies. A wide variety of methods and media are being used for delivering IPM technologies depending upon the type of information and the stage of implementation (Whalon et al., 1982). The mass media methods such as print and electronic media are useful for creating awareness rather than directly assisting the farmer to use IPM technology (Lumber et al., 1985). Mass media methods are less intense methods than face to face method namely farmer field school.

3.2 Methods Used for Dissemination of IPM Technologies

Different methods used for dissemination of IPM technologies include the use of mass media including electronic and print media, field days, extension visits, video movies, plant clinics, IPM clubs, picture songs, IPM websites farmer field school etc.

Distillation of rose oil and rose water:

For distillation of rose oil and rose water initially the fresh rose flower are hydro distilled. The oil and water are collected together. The oil which floats upon the water is separated by decantation get oil directly, while the water is re-distillated. The oil obtained from re-distillation is called recovered oil or water oil. The direct oil and water oil are then combined to make the commercial rose oil.

The water obtained from the second re-distillation step is the commercial rose water

Abstract

Temperate ornamental plants, owing to their special functions, are always in great demand due to their possible uses in temperate landscape plantings (both outdoor and indoor). This ever increasing demand has led to urgent need for their mass-scale multiplication on commercial scale. At present, most of these plants are being multiplied and supplied on a limited scale by concerned Government and private agencies but this is not sufficient. Progressive orchardists of temperate zone and particularly those inhabiting marginal lands which no longer yield regular income, can specially incorporate the element of commercial floriculture in the vacant places in their orchards or through establishment of small polyhouses. Introduction, multiplication and production on large scale of commercially important ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers, bulbous plants, herbaceous perennials, cut flowers, potted plants and seed production of important annuals and perennials by the progressive orchardists in their orchard will yield fruitful returns through their sale and will narrow the constant demand for these plants in the urban and rural areas and will definitely improve the fragile ecology of the hills in the long run. The interested orchardists can collect germplasm of these plants from various Govt. and private agencies. Such an intervention in the existing orchard cropping system will definitely increase the income of the farmers from the same available area and will be a right step towards diversification.

Abstract

The various options available with the fruit growers in temperate areas through floriculture are i) Growing traditional flowers such flowers are honeysuckle, hydrangea, roses of many sorts including Rosa banksiae ( vars alba, lutea), R. moschala, R. wichuriana, R. laevigata, bush roses, Jasminum humile, J. officinale, J. auriculatum, J. mesnyi, spiroea, Passiflora, Fuchsia, Wisteria chinensis, Hibiscus syriacus, Viburnum, Camellia  japonica, Cestrum, etc. ii) Growing cut flowers, iii) Growing annuals. The hardy annuals include Alyssum, Antirrhinum, Anchusa, Brachycome, Calendula, Candytuft, Centaurea, Chrysanthemum (annual), Clarkia, Cornflower, Eschscholtzia, Godetia, Helichrysum, Lathyrus, Larkspur, Linaria, Linum, Lobelia, Lupinus, Matthiola, Nasturtium, Nemesia, Nemophila, Nigella, Phacelia, Poppy, Reseda, Salpiglossis, Saponaria, Vaccaria, Venidium, Viola, etc.  Shade loving annuals are Salvia, Cineraria, Tropaeolum majus, etc. iv) Production of flower seeds and bulbs v) Growing herbaceous annuals vi) Plant rentals. The space between the trees and other plants can be utilized for potted plants, hanging baskets, making bonsai etc. vii) Dried flowers and floral crafts etc.

The arid zone of India covers about 12% of the country’s geographical area and occupies over 31.7 mha of hot desert and about 7 m ha under cold desert. The arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana together constitute the Great Indian Desert known as Thar Desert that accounts for 89.6% of hot arid regions of India. In Gujarat, 6.22 m ha area is under arid zone which constitute 19.6% of the arid area of country (Fig 1). In Gujarat, eight districts fall under arid zone, namely, Kachchh (100% of district area), Jamnagar (80%), Surendranagar (29%), Junagadh (20%), Banaskantha (18%), Mehsana (7%), Ahmedabad (6%) and Rajkot 6%).

Genetic diversity is one of the fundamental character present in any population or species. It is the total variation either phenotypic or genotypic which have occured in a population through due course of evolution. Variation in any species depends on mutation, substitution (insertion/deletion) and response to selection. However, comprehensive studies on theoretical and empirical perspectives for diversity analysis may be found by evolutionary biologists to understand the factor that influences levels of genetic diversity in natural population (Lewontin, 1974). In brief, nucleotides/ protein codes are the basic unit to quantify total amount of variation. Bioinformatic tools and techniques help us to measure inferring relationships between genes, proteins or organisms through use of these DNA/protein sequences by integration of mathematical algorithms, statistical and computer databases.

Diversity analysis is popularly known as phylogenetic analysis in bioinformatic terms. The basic principle of phylogeny is analysis/alignment of characters; whether it is morphological or molecular data. For instance, in case of morphological data of a crop species, the leaf colour/stem colour/fruit colour/grain size etc. may be compared however sequence data is problem of interest for molecular phylogeny. The evolutionary history of any crop species/ organisms inferred from phylogeny analysis mostly depicted through treelike diagrams/ dendrograms. In this chapter, phylogenetic analysis based on only nucleotide/protein sequences are discussed. For analysis of phylogenetics, default assumptions (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2006) are:

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is a tropical herbaceous plant extensively cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, parts of China and Pakistan.  Country of origin is not known with certainity, it is either of Chineese or Indian origin. India ranks first in area (1.49 lakh ha.) and production (5.27 lakh tonnes.) in the world and it is grown in most of the states in the country.  Major turmeric growing states are Andhra Pradesh (56,000 ha.), Orissa (23,000 ha.), Tamilnadu (17,000 ha.), Assam (12,000 ha.), West Bengal (11,000 ha.) Maharashtra (6,000 ha.)  Karnataka (6,000 ha.) and Kerala (3,000 ha.).  Andhra Pradesh ranks first in area and production in the country. Area under this crop is increasing in North Eastern States.

Turmeric belongs to family Zingiberaceae and genus Curcuma. Genus Curcuma has 42 species, of which Curcuma longa is extensively cultivated for culinary purposes, Curcuma aromatica for flavour and recently Curcuma amada (mango ginger) for preparation of chutneys. Turmeric is mainly cultivated for under ground rhizomes, rich in curcumin. Turmeric is traditionally used for medicinal, religious, culinary purposes and also as a cosmetic and dye (Shah 1997). Recent reports in controlling human cancer has given renewed interest on the crop. In Ayurveda, turmeric is regarded as aromatic, a stimulant tonic, carminative and anti helminthic. Essential oil of turmeric is antiseptic and is used in treating gall stones and gall complaints (Pruthi 1976).

Horticulture is a wide field and includes a great variety and diversity of crops. In general, these crops are classified as follows:

1. Crops grown for the food and/or vitamin and mineral content, for e.g., apple and sweet potato.

2. Crops grown for their beverage properties, for e.g., tea and coffee.

3. Crops grown to beautify the environment, for e.g., the grasses of the well planned lawn.

4. Crops grown to express sentiments, for e.g., cut roses, jasmine.

5. Crops grown for perfume for e.g., rose, jasmine.

6. Crops grown for spices for e.g., pepper, nutmeg.

Delineating species boundaries correctly and also identifying species are crucial to the discovery of life’s diversity because it determines whether different individual organisms are members of the same entity or not (Dayrat, 2005). The identification of species depends on the knowledge held by taxonomists whose work cannot cover all taxon identification requested by non-specialists. To deal with these difficulties, the ‘DNA Barcode of Life’ project aims to develop a standardized, rapid and inexpensive species identification method accessible to non-taxonomists.

DNA barcoding is a technique in which species identification is performed by determining and comparing the sequences of several hundred base pairs of nucleotides from a small fragment of an identified gene, with the aim of contributing to a wide range of ecological and conservation studies in which traditional taxonomic identification is not practical (Krishnamurthy and Francis, 2012). The two main ambitions of DNA barcoding are to assign unknown specimens to species and to enhance the discovery of new species and facilitate identification, particularly in cryptic, microscopic and other organisms with complex or inaccessible morphology (Hebert et al., 2003a). Apart from these, identification of species previously defined by other criteria to also is an objective of barcoding. Another major objective could be the definition of operational units for ecological studies. This may also be used for forensic purposes by linking the specimens with already identified databases.

Previous Year Questions

1. What is DNA fingerprinting? Discuss the applied aspects in modern agriculture. (15M, CSE 2021)

• The term DNA fingerprinting in its original sense refers to the method developed in 1985 by Sir Alec Jeffreys (Jeffreys et al., 1985) and his associates for the simultaneous detection of highly variable DNA fragments by hybridisation of specific multilocus probes to electrophoretically separated restriction fragments?

• The DNA fingerprints, resembling barcodes, are unique to the individual and hence can be used in much the same way as conventional fingerprints - to identify individuals with absolute certainty?

DNA Fingerprinting Techniques

• A large number of fingerprinting techniques are in currency, which are variations and combinations of restriction fragmentation and polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

• Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) involves digesting DNA with restriction enzymes, separating the resultant DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis, blotting the fragments to a filter and hybridising probes to the separated fragments. Specific probe-enzyme combinations give highly reproducible patterns.

• With the advent of PCR technology a number of simpler techniques have become available for molecular characterisation.

• These include, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and its several variants, intersimple sequence repeats (ISSR), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and sequence tagged microsatellites sites (STMS).

ABSTRACT

DNA fingerprinting is increasingly being used for identification of varieties, quantification of similarity between varieties and study of genetic diversity available in the population.

This is all the more important in crops where morphological variability is less or one variety is known by different names or different varieties are known by same name.

DNA fingerprinting using RAPD method has been standardized for tapioca. Dellaporta method has been used for extraction of DNA and amplification was done following William’s method. This technique has been used for molecular characterisation of accessions and identification of duplicates in the germplasm maintained at Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram. This technology has been extended for DNA fingerprinting of released varieties and also some of the elite breeding lines.

Eleven varieties released from the institute were fingerprinted using a few primers, which showed high polymorphism in tapioca. One single primer gave distinct banding pattern for all the 11 varieties and it was capable of earmarking each variety.

Individual variety was finger printed for 20 different primers and the results were documented. This technique is being extended to promising land races as well. DNA fingerprinting will be useful for protecting Plant Breeders’ Right as well as Farmers’ Right in the new Patent Regime.

ABSTRACT

The process of developing new crop varieties involves many steps and takes several years. In recent times, biotechnological advances have helped in reducing these considerably. Apart from the techniques of haploid culture and genetic engineering, one of the tools which is making it easier for scientists to select plant traits and develop new varieties is the use of molecular markers. Molecular markers can be used for (a) characterization of germplasm (b) varietal identification and clonal fidelity testing (c) assessment of genetic diversity (d) validation of genetic relationships and (e) marker- assisted selection. These have widespread applications in management of genetic resources as well as in breeding programmes. Marker-assisted selection has practically revolutionized breeding programmes. Traditionally, plant breeders have selected plants based on their visible or measurable traits called the phenotype. But this process can be difficult especially in the case of multigenic or quantitative traits. Molecular markers can be used to trace linkages with traits of importance. In the area of horticulture, this is a very useful tool in tree breeding, where the breeder has to wait for several years for phenotypic expression of the desired trait. A number of DNA marker technologies are now available and rapid advances are being made in the development of more sensitive marker technologies. The techniques involved, the various applications of DNA marker technologies in horticultural crops and future perspectives in the national context have been discussed.

A laboratory is essential for research work in science and development. Most of the research institutes have dedicated laboratories for researchers and students to conduct experiments, perform research work, as well as to provide hands-on learning/training to students. There are certain rules and regulations laid down by the laboratory in-charge which need to be followed strictly for safety purposes. Some of the laboratories keep ‘safety manual’ for researchers to read before entering into the laboratory to conduct experiments. Whenever safety is compromised in a laboratory, there is increase in risk of unwanted incidents in the laboratory. Storing food/beverages in the same refrigerator where laboratory chemicals are kept may lead to disastrous effects on health. This chapter aims to provide instructions in brief on the things to be performed (Do’s) before and after entering onto a laboratory as well as the things never to be done (Don’ts) in a laboratory for the safety reasons.

Good Laboratory Practices (Do’s)

• P Wear apron/labcoat while working in the laboratory.
• P Use gloves/respiratory mask/fumehood while handling toxic/volatile/inflammable chemicals/reagents.
• P Use pippet or pippetor for safety in transfer of solutions.
• P Protect eyes, face and naked parts of the body from UV radiations. Use safety goggles or face mask/apron.
• P Keep your eyes away from Liquid Nitrogen and use cryogloves while handling it.
• P Arrange all the necessary materials/solutions before starting the experiment.
• P Periodically fumigate/ozonize culture and inoculation rooms.
• P Autoclave all contaminated materials before discarding.
• P Pre-treat gel or solution containing Ethidium Bromide (EtBr) before discarding into laboratory waste-disposal bin, and use gloves while handling them.
• P Burn all the transgenic plant materials in an incinerator after taking necessary observations.
• P Make entry in the designated log-book and clean the instrument after using it properly.
• P Switch-off the instrument after use or when not in use.
• P Wash hands with soap and remove the labcoat before leaving/going out of the laboratory7.
• P Ensure that switches for fans/lights, and water taps are off while leaving the laboratory.
• P Follow the biosafety guidelines suggested for handling and disposal of the hazardous chemical.

Dolichos bean or Hyacinth bean, Lablab purpureus (L).Sweet. (Syn. Dolichos lablab Roxb.) under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and having Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 22 is one of the most ancient among the cultivated plants. Young, immature pods are cooked and eaten like green beans. It is grown throughout the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. In India, it is grown extensively in the cool season in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Maharashtra. The pods are one of the rich sources of protein and it also provides fair amount of carbohydrates, calcium, phosphorus sodium, magnesium and iron, b-carotene, riboflavin, thiamine and nicotinic acid.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Dolichos bean or Hyacinth bean has been originated in India as wild forms of this bean are found in this country. From India, it was introduced to China, Western Asia, Egypt and other tropical countries of South and South-east Asia and Africa. Vegetable and pulse type dolichos bean belong to two distinct botanical varieties under Lablab purpureus viz., Lablab purpureus var. typicus and Lablab purpureus var. lignosus, respectively. Various forms and cultivars of both the cultivated types are available in India.

Dolichos bean is known as Lablab bean, hyacinth bean or sem. Grown as field crop in MP, Maharashtra, AP and TN. Genus Dolichus is renamed as Lablab (Syn. D. lablab, D. purpureus, Lablab niger, L. bvulgaris) and Lablab purpureus name is widely accepted. Dolichos lablab L. (synonyms Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet.) is leguminous pod vegetable grown in tropics and few temperate countries. Lablab niger var. lablab is synonym to Dolichos lablab var. typicus where long axis of seed is parallel to suture and is vegetable type. Lablab niger var. lignosus synonym to Dolichos lablab var. lignosus where long axis of seed is perpendicular to suture and is pulse type.

Dolichos bean, [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet] var. typicus (2n=22) also known as Indian bean or sem is one of the vital leguminous vegetables grown in India for its tender green pods. Both pole types and bush types are commercially grown. It is predominantly cultivated in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and North-East India. Protein, minerals, vitamins and f ibers are abundant in Dolichos bean. Bush-type vegetable dolichos unlike the pole-type dolichos (which are generally grown during the winter season as they require short day) are thermosensitive and can be grown year-round.

Dolichos is a versatile and valuable leguminous crop, offering multiple benefits. It boasts a high protein content of 3.6% and fiber content of 1.8%. The dry seed is composed of a protein content ranging from 23.0% to 28.0%. The pods are abundant in phenols, with levels ranging from 1.7 to 9.67 mg/100 g, making them a valuable source of antioxidants. Furthermore, dolichos serves as an excellent source of amino acids, particularly lysine, along with vitamins such as A, C, and riboflavin, and essential minerals (Ca, Fe, Mg, S, Na and P). The seeds of dolichos contain a flavonoid, kievitone, recognized for its potential in combating breast cancer. Additionally, the presence of tyrosinase in the seeds indicates promising possibilities for treating hypertension in humans. Dolichos beans are utilized for various medicinal purposes, acting as stomachic, anthelmintic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, digestive, febrifuge, and carminative agents. Furthermore, they are rich in bioactive compounds that offer significant benefits in treating specific ailments such as liver problems, diabetes and tumors.

There are about 6.5 million coconut farmers in the country. Coconut production, processing, marketing and other connected activities support the livelihood of over 12 million people. Coconut crop provides natural health drink, nutritious edible products and oil for edible and non edible uses, fibre of commercial value, shell and wood for fuel and industrial uses, and a variety of miscellaneous products of utility. Coconut is a symbol of national integration and prosperity. The crop is considered reverential cutting across linguistic and religious barriers promoting national integration. Contribution of coconut to the GDP of the country is around Rs. 100,000 million.

In literal sense a species is called underutilized whose potential has not been properly realized. These underutilized crops (referred to also by other terms such as minor, orphan, neglected, underutilized, underexploited, underdeveloped, lost, new, novel, promising, alternative, local, traditional, niche crops) have been included in world-wide plans of action after having successfully raised the interest of decision makers. Wealth of plant genetic diversity currently available holds vast potential. We use only small number of crop plants for our basic requirements. Many thousands of wild plants have great economic and cultural importance and tremendous market potential for vast numbers of people throughout the world. But the majority are still unknown to science. Plant genetic resources have gained global attention in  recent past by agricultural and environmental institutions. Conservation and use of genetic resources attracted  considerable attention. Value of biological diversity in economic terms is very important for human society.

Agriculture University Kota, Jhalrapatan, Rajasthan, India

1. Introduction

India’s population is likely to reach 1.7 billion by 2050, making it as the thickly populated nation in the world. To feed the ever rising population, food production need augment by 70%. This augment is very serious since Indian agriculture is facing numerous challenges due to disintegration of holdings, ill brunt of climate change, sustaining investment, soaring fluctuation in prices and production, unorganized markets, inconsistent market performance, renovation of agricultural land intended for non-farm purposes and enlarged cost of production (Gangaiah, 2018). The current conditions of the Indian agriculture sector reflect that the farmers are facing severe deficit of income which is to an imperative issue and as a result dissuading the rural youth to take up agriculture as livelihood operation.

Dragon fruit  (Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton and Rose) is a climbing vine cactus species which has received worldwide recognition, first, as an ornamental plant and then as a fruit crop. Its fruit is the most beautiful in the family Cactaceae with a bright red skin studded with green scales and white or red flesh with tiny black seeds.  The flower is so beautiful that it is nicknamed as Noble Woman or Queen of the Night.  The juicy flesh of the fruit is delicious in taste. It is well established as a new crop in Australia, China, Israel, Malaysia, Nicaragua, Taiwan and Vietnam. In Vietnam, it has become a major export crop, which fetches higher prices than even Durian, the King of Fruits in south East Asia.  The main constraint is that the establishment cost is high due to use of trellises for climbing. The cost of establishment will depend on the type of trellises used, and experience in Sri Lanka shows that relatively cheap trellising is sufficient. The other agronomic practices are easy and less expensive; maintenance cost is low and aftercare is minimal due to fewer pest and disease attacks. Further, the biggest advantage of this crop is that once planted, it grows for about 20 years, and one hectare could accommodate about 800 Dragon fruit plants.