eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

Amongst the common fermentations employed in food are alcoholic, lactic acid and acetic acid. Lactic acid fermentation is a potent tool of biopreservation of foods by the use of biological means i.e. microorganisms or their metabolites having antimicrobial action. It deals with the extension of storage life and increased safety of edible products by employing natural microflora or their antimicrobial products such as in food fermentation. Though many problems in food processing and microbiological safety of food have diminished, yet these are certainly not eliminated altogether. These include the likelihood of food-related illness and product spoilage in industrialized countries. The increasing consumption of pre-cooked food, prone to temperature abuse, are among the main causes of this scenario. The bacterial pathogens that account for many of these foodborne illness cases include Salmonella, Compylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridium botulinum. Until now, approaches to seek improved food safety had relied heavily to find out more efficient chemical preservatives or on the application of more drastic physical treatments (e.g. high temperatures) of food processing. Nevertheless, these types of solutions do have some drawbacks also: the proven toxicity of some of the commonest used chemical preservatives (e.g. nitrites), the alteration of the sensory and nutritional properties of foods (thermal processing) especially recent consumer trends in purchasing and consumption, with demands for safe but minimally processed products without additives.

Introduction

Increasing concern about climate change and global warming has created immense awareness among society about green house gas and its reduction. Irrespective of the geographical location, population density and economic development of any region, there is a huge scope for addressing the green house gas emission. Cities have a key role to play in the global agenda for addressing the challenge of climate change. Today, approximately half of the world’s population lives in cities; by 2050, that proportion will probably have increased to two-thirds. India has the highest rate of change of the urban population and will remain above 2% annually for the next three decades. At this rate, an estimated 854 million people will live in Indian cities by 2050.

Introduction

Landscape gardening is a very fascinating and interesting subject. It is a money spinner business and people who are involved in designing and preparing landscape gardens are earning handsome money. It is an aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with application of garden forms, different styles, methods and materials with a view to improve the landscape. Frescos of flowers of old times reveal the association of human with flowering plants which they used in making gardens and planting on road side. In India, the landscape gardening is a developing subject and as such offers much scope for improvement. A beautiful landscape is a vital part of your home and community. A well-planned landscape can save your money by reducing energy consumption.

Grasshoppers: Mecopoda elongata :Tettigonidae; Oxya velox: Acrididae

These pests occur both in nurseries and plantations. Both adults and nymphs feed on leaves by scrapping and eating outer tissues and margins. The emerging leaves are nibbled and the spot holes appear when the leaf unfurls. In severe conditions the entire leaf is eaten leaving behind only the midrib.

Dioscorea alata is commonly called greater yam or larger yam or water yam.  This is the most widely distributed species of yam. This species originated in South East Asia, probably in Burma. From there, it first spread to India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the eastern portion of South East Asia.  Later it served as food for voyagers and thereby spread to other parts of the tropics.  Immigrants from India and Malaysia introduced it to Madagascar, from where it was partially introduced into East Africa and Portuguese and Spanish voyager traders of the 16th century probably introduced it into West Africa and later to West Indies.

It is a common knowledge that most of the farmers apply irrigation water until all the points in the field are fully wetted and covered with a thin sheet of water. Studies have indicated that a significant (20-25%) amount of irrigation water is lost during its application at the farm due to poor farm designing and unevenness of the fields. This problem is more pronounced in the case of rice fields. Unevenness of fields leads to inefficient use of irrigation water and also delays tillage and crop establishment options. Fields that are not levelled have uneven crop stands, increased weed burdens and uneven maturing of crops. All these factors tend to contribute to reduced yield and produce quality which reduce the potential farm income. Effective land levelling is meant to optimize wateruse efficiency, improve crop establishment, reduce the irrigation time and effort required to manage crop.

Reasonably levelled agriculture fields has advantage over uneven and undulating crop fields as unevenness of the soil surface has a significant impact on the seed germination, crop stand and its yield. Traditionally land levelling was being done throughout India by bullock drawn plough or tractors and applying different devices for levelling the field by visual assessment e.g. on small plots with hoes, or with draft animals and equipment such as ploughs and bars or scrapers or grading. Equipment such as grading blades and hydraulically operated levellers mounted on wheels are used with tractors. More advanced and sophisticated levelling equipment is operated with a laser emitter, a laser sensor or receiver, and a scraper pulled by a tractor. After the desired level or slope of the field and/or the difference of the high and low spots have been surveyed, the emitter is set to send a rotating laser beam creating a plane of laser light above the field surface. The laser light is used as the levelling reference. It directs the hydraulic system of the moving tractor and scraper, and thereby controls the levelling. Hence, laser levelling or laser land levelling is levelling the crop field within certain degree of desired slope using a guided laser beam throughout the field.

Lasoda (Cordia myxa L.) known by many names viz., cherry of desert, assyrian palm, sebestene plum,  lasura, lehsua, gonda and naruvilli, is an underutilized, multipurpose fruit tree distributed in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Arid regions are considered under the category of wastelands which are not being used to their fullest potential. Among the arid region crops, lasoda is very suitable crop for cultivation in Rajasthan as it can withstand drought to a very great extent and can tolerate temperature as high as 48 to 50°C during summer months. Lasoda thrives well on neglected, low fertile, sandy, gravelly, saline, alkaline soils and hence can be used for forestation of waste lands. However, it grows vigorously in moist sandy loam soils and gives high productivity.

Background

Water is the most precious input for dryland horticulture, and therefore, its use should be planned judiciously. Rainwater harvesting and its management play a significant role in horticultural production. The rainwater can be diverted either directly to tree basins in situ or in suitable structures ex situ, which can later be utilized as lifesaving irrigation. In sandy soils, in situ conservation should be popularized, while in heavier soils, ex-situ conservation should be popularized. The water thus collected remains stored deep into the soil profile, escapes from evaporative losses, and is available during critical periods of demand. Perennial fruit trees, once established, get the advantage of any time it rains during the year, unlike annual crops. Water harvesting in khadins in parts of the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan and its use in raising crops and trees is the age-old practice of in situ water harvesting. The hilly, rocky, and sloppy lands generate runoff, which can be collected in ponds or tanks and recycled for the establishment of fruit plantations and lifesaving irrigation at critical stages. In the same stance, nutrient management also plays an important role in the successful cultivation of horticultural crops under dryland. The arid zone soils are very poor in the majority of nutrients except potash. Enrichment of soil with organic and inorganic sources is essential for optimum production of fruits and vegetables. The application of chemical fertilizers has made miracles initially in agriculture and horticulture. However, increasing awareness of environmental degradation due to various anthropogenic activities has been expressed worldwide about the over-reliance on mineral fertilizers, which causes environmental penalties. It has also led to a deficiency of several micronutrients. Therefore, the option left is whether to revert back to traditional farming using organic input or to follow some middle path by integrating both organic and inorganic. So far as present knowledge is concerned, organic manuring alone cannot maintain the required productivity and demand for food.

Lawn

Lawn is a natural green carpet, and it is important feature of a landscape and a garden without a lawn is not considerd complete. Lawn is an area of land closed mowed grasses it is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose. A lawn is an integral part of a garden and landscape besides aesthetic and recreational purpose and several other purposes. Lawn provides a place for taking rest after tiring of the day, holding parties, social functions, passive and active recreation. Distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to with stand close mowing and still providing a functional dense healthy ground cover. Lawn is also called as heart of garden. Lawn can be called as turf pitch a field, sod, yard, are green depending upon the plantation usage continent. Lawn is a ground cover of perennial grass, ditch, persists enclose mowing and require proper management practice.

J.B. Olcoth designed first experiment in lawn grass at Monchester in USA in the 19th century. Festuca and Agrostis species were used to make turf (Lawn) during 1880 in U.K. In the early 19th century lawn become wild spread out side of parks golf course. Now a day in many metro cities of India lawn has become a cultural of the passion of many homes.

Lawn

Lawn is a natural green carpet, and it is important feature of a landscape and a garden without a lawn is not considered complete. Lawn is an area of land closed mowed grasses it is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose. A lawn is an integral part of a garden and landscape besides aesthetic and recreational purpose and several other purposes. Lawn provides a place for taking rest after tiring of the day, holding parties, social functions, passive and active recreation. Distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to with stand close mowing and still providing a functional dense healthy ground cover. Lawn is also called as heart of garden. J.B. Olcoth designed first experiment in lawn grass at Monchester in USA in the 19th century. Festuca and Agrostis species were used to make turf (Lawn) during 1880 in U.K. In the early 19th century lawn become wild spread out side of parks golf course. Now a day in many metro cities of India lawn has become a cultural of the passion of many homes.

1. INTRODUCTION

Leaf and soil analysis are the tools to estimate the fertilizer needs of fruit crops. Leaves are selected for analysis because:

• Leaf is the principal site of plant metabolism.
• The changes in nutrient supply are reflected in the leaf composition.
• The changes are more pronounced at certain stages of development.
• The concentration of nutrients in the leaf at specific growth stages are related to performance of the plant.

Introduction

Leafy vegetables belong to an important group of vegetables and are highly nutritious due to their richness in Vitamin A (Carotene), Vitamin C, Folic acid, Riboflavin, Thiamine and minerals like Iron, Calcium and Phosphorus etc. Appreciable quantity of proteins is also found in these crops. They also provide a variety of phyto-nutrients including beta-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin, which protect cells from damage, age-related problems, among many other effects. Dark green leaves even contain small amounts of Omega-3 fat. They are available at cheaper rate in the market as compared to other vegetables. They provide roughage and have an important place in the balanced diet. It is recommended that a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leafy vegetables in the diet of woman and man respectively. India is the 2^nd largest producer of leafy vegetables in the world after China, accounted for about 10% of the world production (Singh et al., 2006) but, the production levels of these leafy vegetables are very low because of lack of availability of high yielding varieties. Leafy vegetables are those crops from which leaves and associated parts are harvested for use as vegetable. The leaves of about 700 different kinds of plants belonging to125 families are consumed in the form of vegetables. The major leafy vegetables grown in the country are amaranth, spinach beet (desi palak), spinach and fenugreek. In addition to this a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leafy vegetables in specific regions. Leafy vegetables are usually grown in kitchen and market gardens. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking. Though leafy vegetables have high nitrate and oxalate levels, but adverse nutritional effects are not to be feared with a consumption level of 100-200 g per day. The commonly grown major leafy vegetables and their wild relatives are listed below

Introduction Palak (Beta vulgaris L. var. bengalensis), also known as spinach beet or perpetual spinach, Saag, Indian Spinach, beet leaf, Swiss chard and Palongpalang. is a leafy green vegetable that is closely related to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). And it belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. It is a popular and versatile vegetable known for its nutritious leaves and mild flavour. Palak shares similarities with both spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris). The leaves of palak are tender and similar in appearance to spinach leaves. They are dark green and have a slightly glossy texture. The flavour of palak is milder compared to spinach, with a pleasant earthy taste. This makes it a versatile ingredient that can be used in various culinary preparations. Palak is often grown as a cool-season vegetable, as it can tolerate cool temperatures better than spinach. It is appreciated for its ability to produce a continuous harvest of leaves over an extended period, hence the name “perpetual spinach.” This characteristic makes it a valuable addition to home gardens and commercial production.

Leaf vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin-C and minerals like calcium, iron etc. They also provide roughage required in human diet. The Indian Council of Medical Research (1984) recommended a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leaf vegetables in the diet of woman and man, respectively. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, cabbage etc. are the major leaf vegetables grown in the country. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking. The major annual leaf vegetables have a few features in common:

1. Most of leaf vegetables are of short duration and the entire harvest is over within 80-90 days
2. Leaf vegetables are cultivated by direct sowing and by transplanting. In direct sowing, seeds are sown as in nursery and harvested 30 days after. In transplanted method, 25-30 days old seedlings are transplanted at a closer spacing and harvesting is done by frequent clippings or cuttings.

Improved Varieties of Leafy Vegetables

A. AMARANTHUS

Leafy vegetables are rich source of vitamins like A, C and minerals like calcium and iron. Most of the leafy vegetables are quick growing types and shows good response to manures and fertilizers. Their easiness in cultivation and adaptation to diverse agroclimatic conditions makes it suitable for various cropping systems. Some of them are annual in nature while some others are perennial. Leaves as well as tender stems are uses as vegetable in the cooked form. They are reported to have antinutritional factors, oxalates and nitrates compared to other vegetables. The annual leafy vegetables are widely cultivating in our country and among them, amaranth, palak, spinach and fenugreek are the major ones. These crops are short duration in nature, completes their entire life cycle by 80-90 days and produce good yield and brings monetary returns to farmers in short time.

Amaranth (Amaranth sp.)

It is herbaceous fast growing annual leafy vegetable grown for leaves as well as grains. Vegetable amaranth is reported to be equal or superior in taste to that of spinach. Leaves and succulent stem are good source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium and iron and are used as vegetable. High oxalate and nitrate content are reported in some species of amaranth.

The major vegetable species of amaranth cultivating in India is A. ticolor. It is suggested to be originated in South or South east Asia particularly in India. Another vegetable type, A. dubius shows diversity in Central America, Indonesia, Asia and Africa. A. lividus is the popular vegetable type in South and Central Europe. Other leafy species are A. viridis, A. tristis and A. spinosus. A. cruentus, A. hypochondriacus and A. caudatus are cultivating for grain purpose. Taxonomists suggested two sections in Amaranthus namely blitopsis which include leafy types and amaranthus which constitutes grain types.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

The world floriculture business has reached to almost over a $ 40 billion mark. It is continuously going through the rapid transitional changes to have more unique and competitive products of wide choice to the consumers. Netherland is ahead in floriculture trade. Throughout the year, a large number of ornamental commodities are imported in Holland and exported back to the countries for its retail and consumption mostly to the countries in the Gulf, Middle-East Asia and America. According to the statistical estimates worldwide, a large quantity is consumed in US and the other countries. For an example, the US alone consumes 100 lacs of cut flowers a day and approximately 4000 lacs every year, though it ranks only 17^th in per capita cut-flower consumption. The average Swiss spends Rs 4500 a year on flowers, nearly four times than that spent by the average American besides the fact that the consumption of fresh cut flower and foliage plant is on manifold increase every year resulting in the competition worldwide for growing of exportable eco-friendly products. At the same time there is great environmental consciousness towards transforming floriculture with “natural and unspoiled” system of having the exportable produce into a mass and its ease to transport to any distant market. The system relies greatly on the industry with extensive network of breeders, greenhouse managers, field workers, auction houses, sales representatives, shippers, and florists to offer consumers a variety of choices matching their taste. This is the fact that in the recent times, the commercial growers don’t rely on the nature to introduce the genetic mutation that will make them millionaires but depends on the art and scientific knowhow to create a novelty in its own. This has resulted in the seriousness and painstaking effort of the growers to produce the plants in new forms and shape to put forward a new plant with extra-ordinary marketable characteristics every year, e.g. compact chrysanthemum, kalanchoe, bromeliads, orchids, etc (Plate1) are some of the common products with an unusual and eye-catching hue in the European markets. Similarly, the consumers can purchase gerberas with blooms as wide as salad plates and roses with yard-long stems perfectly suited for valentine-day gifts which mainly they get produced under the specific and artificial environment created for a specific growth stages of the plant.

The leek is a centuries-old crop native to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. The plant is linked to the onion, and its flavour is mild, sweet, and onion-like. Leek stalks are commonly used in European soups and stews, particularly as a side dish with potatoes, and can be cooked whole as a vegetable. It is a non-bulb producing onion family member farmed for blanched stem and leaves. It is eaten fresh or combined into salads, and it is cooked as a flavouring in soups and stews. It is not grown commercially in India, although it is a popular vegetable in a kitchen garden. The climate and soil conditions are the same as for onion.

Botany and taxonomy: The leek is a vegetable that is a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum, often known as the broadleaf wild leek. 

Peas and beans belonging to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae) are delicious and preferred vegetables grown throughout the world. These include cool season vegetables like pea, French bean, lima bean, broad bean and tropical vegetables like cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean, jack bean, sword bean etc. These are integral components of sustainable agriculture due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and to improve soil properties. Legume vegetables are rich in protein and essential amino acids and have significant role in combating malnutrition among poor people and vegetarians.

Common features of legume vegetables are summarized below:

1. All legume vegetables are self-pollinated due to cleistogamous nature. Flowers are zygomorphic with papilionaceous corolla, mono-adelphous or di-adelphous stamens.
2. All are direct sown crops and do not respond to transplanting. Since seed size is comparatively bigger and they are closely planted, a high seed rate is required for most of crops.

Keys to Genera
Flowers zygomorphic, stamens definite, corolla papillonacious, petals imbricate: 1I, 1O, 3 IO
Group I:    Herbs or shrubs, leaves imparipinnate, leaf lets entire, pods usually dehiscent, or if indehiscent usually small, a few seeded. Cyamopsis
Group II:    Herbs low or climbing, leaves paripinnate, leaflets ending in a tendril or bristle, style bearded, pods dehiscent.
Sub group 1: Staminal tube oblique at mouth, pod compressed. Vicia
Sub group 2: Staminal tube truncate (cutting off) at mouth, pods torpid.  Pisum
Group III:     Climbing or prostrate and rarely erect
Sub group 1: style bearded, stamen diadelphous
Sub-sub group: stigma terminal: Dolichos
Sub-sub group: Stigma oblique: Keel spiral : Phaseolus
Keel not spiral: Vigna
Sub group 2: Style not bearded, stamen monodelphous: Canavalia
Group IV:    Trees or shrubs, some times climbing, pods indehiscent: Psophocarpus

Garden Pea
It is cool season crop cultivated throughout the world. It is extensively grown in temperate zone and is restricted to cooler altitudes in tropics and winter season in sub tropics. It is rich source of proteins (25.6%), amino acids and sugars. It goes well with other vegetables in vegetable dish.