eChapters

Introduction

Measurement of pH of a solution and preparation of different types/strength of buffers are common practices in a laboratory, particularly in the Biochemistry and Molecular Biology laboratories. Therefore, in this chapter you will be acquainted with the procedures of measuring pH of a solution as well as preparation of some of the commonly used buffers in a laboratory.

Potential or Power of Hydrogen Ion (pH)

Measurement of pH of a solution is measuring the molar concentration of hydrogen ion [H+] in the solution, which is an indication of the acidity or basicity of the solution. The symbol pH stands for “power of hydrogen” and numerical value for pH is just the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions [H+]. The ionic product of water (Kw ) is the basis for the pH scale. The total hydrogen ion concentration from all the sources and it can be experimentally measured.

The pH scale designates the concentration of H+ (and thus of OH−) in an aqueous solution, which ranges between 1.0 M H+ and 1.0 M OH−. The term pH is defined by the expression

Thus, the ionic product of water makes it possible to calculate the concentration of H+, with given concentration of OH−, and vice versa. The value of 7 for pH of a neutral solution is not an arbitrarily chosen figure; it is derived from the absolute value of the ionic product of water. A solution having pH greater than 7 is basic, and the concentration of OH− is greater than that of H+. A solution having a pH less than 7 is acidic.

The moisture content is the amount of water in the seed and is usually expressed as a percentage. It can he expressed on either a wet weight basis (where it is expressed as a percentage of the fresh weight of the seed) or on a dry weight basis (where it is expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the seed). The seed moisture content is the most vital parameter, which influence the seed quality and storage life of the seed. Seed moisture content is closely associated with several aspects of physiological seed quality. For example, it is related to seed maturity, optimum harvest time, mechanical damage, economics of artificial seed drying, seed longevity and insect & pathogen infestation.

ABSTRACT

The antagonistic organisms are known to bring out action on the pathogen by various mechanisms. Based on in vitro screening of epiphytic microbes from cocoa pod surface against Phytophthora palmivora, the incitant of pod rot of cocoa, a promising isolate of Trichoderma viride and two isolates of Pseudomonas fluorescens were selected. The mechanisms of antagonistic action of these selected epiphytic antagonists against P. palmivora were studied in comparison with the standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens. The selected epiphytic fungal antagonist T. viride and standard culture of T. harzianum were found to be efficient parasites of P. palmivora. The hyphae of the pathogen were seen tightly held by coiling with hyphae of the fungal antagonists. The hyphae of the antagonists penetrated the host hyphae at several points and grew to its inner cavity. The fungal antagonists also caused disintegration of the pathogen hyphae, besides free intermingling, which resulted in malformation of host hyphae. The ability of the two epiphytic P. fluorescens isolates and standard culture of P. fluorescens in producing HCN and siderophores was assessed. It was found that these isolates produced HCN and siderophores in appreciable levels thereby suppressing the P. palmivora. Though, more than one mechanism may operate in suppressing the pathogen, the relative importance of a particular mechanism may vary with different conditions, which needed to be further investigated.

Biofertilizers improve the plant growth due to changes in the microbial community of rhizosphere by production of several substances. Normally, biofertilizers promote plant growth either by facilitating nutrient absorption or by secretion of plant hormones. Biofertilizers also cause inhibitory effects by acting as biocontrol agents on various pathogens so that the growth of plant is enhanced. The mode of action could be either direct or indirect methods

Labour is one of the biggest input costs for vegetable growers. Vegetable farming is labor intensive and time consuming. Frequently, it is associated with low yield and poor quality production. The constraints are high labor requirements for land clearing, ploughing, bed forming, mulch laying, seeding, transplanting, harvesting and transporting. Mechanization is interjection of improved tools, implements, machines and other equipments between man and materials (soil, water, environment, seed, fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators, irrigation water, agricultural produce and by-products such as fruits, vegetables, and seeds, etc.)

Sowing of Seed: It is a process of planting seeds of crops in well prepared or no till field or nursery beds/pots for raising crops in following methods:

Methods of Sowing: The sowing method is determined by the crop to be sown and resources on the disposal of farmer. There are 6 sowing methods which differ in their merits, demerits and adoption. Those are:

1.Broad casting

2.Broad or Line sowing

3.Dibbling

4.Transplanting

5.Planting

6.Putting seeds behind the plough.

• Botanical name: Papavera somnifera
• Family: Papaveraceae
• Origin: Europe
• Useful part: Fruit/Capsule
• Chemical content: Morphine, Narcotine, Codine
• Flowering time: 95–115 days after sowing
• Capsule maturity: 15–20 days after flowering
• Uses: It is also called “God of sleep”. It is used in Painkillar, hypotonic effect and cure to leukaemia
• It is a licence crop and grow in Aari
• One aari equals to 100 m²
• Seed rate: For broadcasting: 7–8 Kg/ha

  For line sowing: 4–5 Kg/ha

• Thinning is important cultural practices.

Horticultural medicinal plants

Throughout recorded history, people have held medicinal plants in high regard due to the many health benefits they provide. Natural cures abound among these botanical marvels, and they may alleviate a wide range of health problems. The wide variety of bioactive substances found in them has been used to create pharmaceutical medications and alternative treatments, suggesting that they may have curative properties. Medicinal plants, such as aloe vera and turmeric, offer a wide range of uses, including pain relief, the treatment of chronic diseases, and general health improvement. A newfound respect for traditional herbal medicine’s knowledge and the need of preserving these priceless resources has emerged in recent years, as contemporary medicine investigates the plants’ unrealized potential.

Medicinal plants are non-food non-plantation crops.

These are rich in secondary metabolites viz. alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoides and steroids, etc.

Union government of India has started a project on 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library' under which it is documenting all Ayurvedic formulations in a digital form to avert patent threats from companies in the developed world

1. Introduction

Plants are reliable sources for the treatment of diseases in different parts of the world (Eisenberb et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Hostettmann et al., 2000) and they have been unique sources of medicines and constituted the most common use of biodiversity (Hamilton, 2004; Hiremath and Taranath, 2010). Their use contributes significantly to primary healthcare delivery (Holetz et al., 2002) as they are regarded as invaluable sources of pharmaceutical products (Olalde, 2005).

Traditional medicine, with medicinal plants as their most important component, are sold in market places or prescribed by traditional healers in their homes (Von Maydell, 1996). As a result of this strong dependence on plants as medicines, many ethnopharmacological studies have been conducted to determine their safety, efficiency and discovery of new active principles from them. Only, 1,100 plants have so far been thoroughly examined for their medicinal practices in the world (Dobson, 1995).

Herbal medicine have been in use since time immemorial and are still the mainstay mainly in the developing countries because of their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects (Kamraj, 2000).

Description of important medicinal plants

8.1 Medicinal use of Bamboo in Cattle: The important parts of bans (Bambusa arundinacea) used are the leaf and stem, which contain choline, betain, nuclease, urease, cyanogenetic and glucoside. The leaf acts as an emmenagogue, stimulant, astringent, febrifuge, echbolic, and diuretic. It also acts against leprosy, tympany/bloat, diarrhea, retained placenta, threadworm, cough, and cold in horses. Flowering occurs once in ten to twelve years. The plant dries after flowering. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.2 Medicinal uses of Dendrocalamus Strictus: The leaf and other parts of kaban (Dendrocalamus strictus), which contain siliceous matter, are used as astringent and ecbolics in animals. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.3 Medicinal uses of Datura metel, D. alba, D. fastuosa: The leaf, root, fruit, and ripe seed of sadah datura (Datura metel) contain alkaloids such as hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, scopalamine, allantoin, and vitamin C. They are used for treating insanity, fever with catarrh and cerebral complications, and the fruit is used to induce heat in animals and treat prolapse of uterus/ vagina. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.4 Medicinal uses of Dalbergia Sissoo: The stem bark, root, leaf, and mucilage of sisam (Dalbergia sissoo) contain tannin, dalberginone, dalbergin, allylphenol of latitontype, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-s-methoxyisoflorone, and are used for leprosy, boils, eruptions, to allay vomiting, and the oil is used for cutaneous afflictions. Mucilage of leaves mixed with sweet oil is applied in excoriations. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.5 Medicinal uses of Cyperus Rotundus: The tubers of motha mutha (Cyperus rotundus) have essential oils, myristic and stearic acid, unstable alkaloid, b-seilinne, cyperenone, and are used as diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, stimulant, tranquilizer, and antipyretic. (Parabia et al., 2000).

Clasping stemmed Solena or diversely leaved Melothria or creeping cucumber (Solena amplexicaulis Lam. Syn. Bryonia amplexicaulis (Lam), Melothria heterophylla (Lour), Melothria angulata Chakrav) is an indigenous cucurbit vegetable occuring in nature nearby cultivated areas on hedges or in open fields In Greek Solen means’ a tube,pipe’ refering to the nature of its flowers. The vernacular names are Bon-kundari, kudari, makal, mahakal (bengali), gometti (marati), kanduri, kuduri (bundelkhand), bankakra (champa), gometi (gujarati, anatmul, mahakal, taarali, kaduri (hindi),makirla (chattirgarh), kaage mari balli (kanarese) etc. This is a perennial vine, dioecious in nature. Tender fruits are used as salad, curry and  fried vegetable. It has significant medicinal value also.  In tribal regions of Orissa, fruits of Melothria are considered as delicacy. Visualizing the delicate nature of its fruits, it has great potential as a salad crop in  future.

1. The first Director of IARI was ?????.
   1. M. S. Randhawa
   2. B. P. Pal
   3. M. S. Swaminathan
   4. G. Kalloo
2. In vegetable blanching is done for?????.
   1. Removal of microorganism
   2. To activate the enzymes
   3. To retention colour
   4. All of the above
3. Viviparous refers to?????.
   1. Germination of seed on mother plant
   2. Germination of seed in the field
   3. Germination of the seed on monoecious plant
   4. Germination of seed on any place
4. Sourness in radish is due to ?????.
   1. Isosinate
   2. Isothiocinate
   3. Anthocyanin
   4. All of the above

Cabbage semilooper: Thysanoplusia orichalcea :Noctuidae

Eggs are laid singly on lower surface of leaves.  The emerging larvae feed as a scraper initially and then feed voraciously on the leaves. The larva is greenish and hence not easily noticed initially. But when patches of damage occur in the crop, examine for the larvae and remove and destroy all the larvae. Chemical control is not advisable, and spraying extracts of other aromatic plants can deter egg laying very well.

1. Introduction

Plants offer a rich source of active compounds that have been exploited as scents, flavourings, pigments, pesticides, and medicinal compounds for thousands of years. Plants are thought to utilise these metabolites as a primary strategy for adapting to and surviving in a variety of ecological niches and environmental conditions, as well as to combat biotic intrusions in their environment (Weng, 2014). The increased interest in phytomedicine and medicinal supplements, as well as the increased regulatory obligations for their safety and reputable contents of active compounds, has prompted the development of methodologies for the quality control of multi - component concretes found in plant-derived nutraceuticals. Metabolite diversity in plants is thought to have evolved over time to help plants survive in harsh environments, and it is continually changing. 

The term DNA sequencing refers to methods for determining the order of the nucleotide bases, adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine, in a molecule of DNA. In molecular terms ,the definitive understanding of a DNA molecule comes from determining its nucleotide sequence.The function of a gene can be deduced from its nucleotide sequence,for example by comparing the sequences of genes with known functions.

The first DNA sequences were obtained by academic researchers, using laborious methods based on 2 – dimensional chromatography in the early 1970s.  Following the development of dye-based sequencing methods with automated analysis, DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster.  Knowledge of DNA sequences of genes and other parts of the genome of organisms have become indispensable for basic research studying biological processes, as well as in applied field like diagnostic or forensic research.  The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery.

Seed Production

Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate care is given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop management techniques. The benefits of seed production are

• Higher income
• Higher quality seed for next sowing

In order to get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they should not only be applied in proper time and in right manner but any other aspects should also be given careful consideration. Different soils react differently with fertilizer application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different crops are different and even for a single a crop the nutrient requirements are not the same at different stages of growth. The aspects that require consideration in fertilizer application are listed below:

19.1 Introduction

In self-pollinated crops, the methods of selection aim at improving individual plants. On the other hand, in cross-pollinated crops they aim at improving a population of plants. A population is a large group of interbreeding individuals. Hence, selection is called population improvement in cross-pollinated crops. Selection in self-pollinated crops results in isolation of pure breeding lines which is the end product. But in cross-pollinated crops, it results in an improved population which is used as the commercial cultivar. Improved inbred lines (also called inbreds) for producing hybrids can be obtained from such populations. Again, like many rounds of selection being practised in different inbreeding generations in self-pollinated crops we are also practising many rounds of selection in cross-pollinated crops. But, unlike self-pollinated crops selection in cross-pollinated crops is followed by intermating to develop a new population before starting another round of selection. One cycle of selection consists of selection of individual/family and intermating of the selected units. Such cycle is repeated till we get the improved population. This method of practising the cycles of selection and recombination in a population is called recurrent selection or population improvement. Frey (1983) prefers the use of recurrent selection for closed populations where no new germplasm is added to the population during selection. Population improvement was used for a group of breeding techniques where all aspects are similar to recurrent selection but with the provision of adding new sources of germplasm whenever feasible. It is only a matter of coincidence that past history of application of recurrent selection has been limited to closed populations, but its basic aim has always been the accumulation of favourable genes, without any restriction on the migration of new genes during the course of selection. Apart from a slight nuance, population improvement and recurrent selection are two titles of the same principle and procedure of manipulating the genetic potential of populations. Recurrent selection can also be applied in self-pollinated crops.