eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

India is traditionally rich on agricultural knowledge. Presently modern farming is not sustainable in consonance with economics, ecology, equity, energy and socio–cultural dimensions. Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides to boost the yields have resulted in various environmental and health hazards along with socio–economic problems. The agricultural production has continued to increase, but the trend in productivity has started declining. The agricultural scientist’s and farming community whole heartedly aim at an alternative sustainable farming system which will be ecologically sound, economically viable and socially acceptable. The answer to the problem lies in refining our own traditional practices based on natural and organic farming methods offering several safe, feasible and cost effective solutions.

The term ‘Organic farming’, a system of farming is one which avoids synthetic fertilizers but rely upon crop rotation also using crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, biofertilizers, organic wastes etc., to maintain the soil fertility and increase productivity. This system enables the nutrients leaching from perennial wood and vegetation and help to maintain organic matter and protect the soil from surface erosion. The world wide awareness for adopting organic farming has paved way for streamlining the production technology and certification by adopting the specified crop production practices. Organic farming practices in agriculture and animal husbandry are native to East Asian countries, like India and China. In China a strong national movement for animal waste recycling is in vogue, minimizing the use of inorganic fertilizers (Xu, 2000), while in our country specific crop production practices are developed in isolation and adopted locally.

The trend of use of chemicals and industrial inputs in intensive farming is increasing which resulted in soil health deterioration and increased environmental pollution which causes a great concern all over the world. Therefore an emphasis on the need to use the organics and other byproducts of agriculture and industry is emerging. Fortunately, the country is already rich with left over crop residues (185 million tonnes) but its use presently is limited. Apart from crop residues, there is an enormous quantity of cattle wastes out of which sixty per cent of the used for fuel purpose in rural areas.

Green revolution technologies such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient-responsive, high-yielding varieties of crops, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc. has boosted the production output in most cases. However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environments.

In last few decades awareness about social and environmental issues has been increased. Agriculture is one of basic enterprise that has major role in these two issues . Organic agriculture is one of the agriculture production system that not only supportive to the environment but also sensitive to the social issues like employment, health, migration etc. Definitions given by two international organizations also verify this concept.

1. Who is often referred to as the father of organic farming?

a) J.I. Rodale

c) Rudolf Steiner

b) Sir Albert Howard

 d) Rachel Carson

2. Which organization is responsible for setting and regulating organic farming standards in the United States?

a) United Nations (UN)

 b) World Health Organization (WHO)

 c) United States Department of Agriculture (USDa)

 d) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

The word ‘organic’, means ‘living’, ‘earth friendly’ or ‘of plant or animal origin’. Organic farming is a very native concept of India and has been followed from ancient times. Soil is a living entity and the focus in organic farming is the soil itself. Of course, it is based on understanding the ways of nature. All organic waste from agriculture and other sources is recycled to enrich the soil. Thus, the health of the soil and its structure is maintained. The natural microorganisms of the soil are protected and nurtureed.

Organic farming is primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes and other biological means of sustainable production in an ecofriendly pollution free environment.

As per the definition of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) study team; organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs namely fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives, etc. and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection.

19.1 DEFINITION OF ORGANIC FARMING

1.According to IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement), Organic Farming definition includes all agricultural system that promote the environmentally, socially and ecologically sound production system of food and fibres. IFOAM stresses and supports the development of self- supporting system on local and regional level.

2.As per the definition of the USDA study team on organic farming “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.

3.In another definition FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”.

Organic cultivation is a deep rooted cultivation tradition, which had been practiced in many parts of the world, before the advent of the practice of use of chemicals.

After the green revolution there has been exponential usage of chemicals in agriculture, right from planting to harvesting. Chemicals are used in the form of nutrient inputs or for plant protection against pests, diseases, weeds and keeping deficiencies at bay. Nevertheless, after the awareness regarding the detrimental effect of chemicals on soil, climate and human health, there has been a lot of contemplation on substituting the chemicals with the organic alternatives. Growing crops using organic inputs is known as ‘organic cultivation’. Organic cultivation is a sustainable form of cultivation where a proper balance is maintained and management of plant nutrition, pests, weeds and diseases is done in a sustainable manner, keeping the soil microflora intact and active. It does not release any chemical gases in the atmosphere, does not make the soil acidic and the soil does not lose its structure and texture. Contrary to chemical farming, where over a time period, the soil quality, texture and structure is lost, in organic practices, the soil texture, quality and structure improves over time, the plants become strong and the quality of the produce is improved. Other than organic inputs, organic farming relies on some sustainable practices like using native germplasm, crop rotations with legumes, green manuring, mulching, inter cropping, mixed cropping, incorporation of farm and animal waste compost. These simple age old practices build to organic content in the soil and elevate the soil’s efficiency to make nutrients and water to the plants. The soil microflora and earthworms become biologically active, efficient and exponentially proliferate. The goal of organic cultivation is to get maximum produce from the soil in such a manner that the soil, air and water are clean and protected.

1. INTRODUCTION

Green Revolution Technologies (GRT) such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient responsive high yielding varieties, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc. have boosted the production output in most cases. However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environment. The most unfortunate impacts of GRT on Indian Agriculture are imbalance in production, dependency on synthetic chemical fertilizers, increase in secondary and micronutrient deficiencies, increase in pesticide use, unscientific water management and distribution, reduction in productivity, reduction in quality of the produce, extinction of gene pool, environmental pollution and imbalance in social and economic status.

Moreover, today the rural economy is now facing a challenge of over dependence on outside inputs and day-by-day increase in price of these inputs. Further, Indian Agriculture will face the market competition due to globalization of trade as per World Trade Organization (WTO). Thus, apart from quantity, quality will be the important factor. Such varieties of concern and problems of modern Indian Agriculture gave birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, do-nothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. Therefore, for sustaining the productivity of the crop, maintaining the soil health and healthy ecosystem, there is a need for adoption of an alternative farming system, may be the organic farming.

Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountain hills and resource poor areas of the country. It safeguards/improves quality of resources and environment. It is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment.

For a product to be called and labelled “organic”, it should have been produced from start (seed) to end (the produces, the consumer is buying) in an organic way. International Federation of Organic Movement (IFOAM) has clearly laid down the condition that in order to get organic certification to the produces, the seed used for sowing should also have been produced organically. To enter into organic agriculture, timely research has been warranted to study the strategies and efficacies of organic seed production to fulfill the global organic seed demand.

Organic seed production system involves use of organic seed quality enhancement treatments, integrated organic nutrient management practices viz., organic manures, green manures and biofertilizers etc., and integrated organic plant protection viz., agronomic practices, crop rotation, growing border/trap crops and use of botanicals, biopesticides and biocontrol agents apart from encouraging natural parasites, predators and parasitoids etc.

Organically produced seeds are obtained by adapting the organic crop production system. Organic seed is a critical input but specialised efforts to produce organic seeds are not adequately and systematically followed. Accredited organic farming standards recognises the organic seed production as a prerequisite to organic farming. Seed health is important in organic seeds since seeds are not treated with chemical fungicides.

Introduction

Organic farming per se is not a new concept rather is an age old practice of cultivation crops without synthetics. However, in modern usage it is a type of farming without synthetics but at the same time taking advantage of all the modern agriculture technologies like soil testing, nutrient management, ecofriendly pest management, etc. developing and developed world have different incentives for taking up organic farming. Growing health consciousness among the people of developed world is the prime motive behind interest in organic farming. However, conversion of “by default” organic agriculture into “certified organic” is perspective in the developing world so that farmers get price premium. Whatever the case may be, the area under organic farming as well as demand for organic food/product is increasing both in developing as well as in the developed world.

Organic production is a systems approach. Although many aspects of vegetable production remain the same in both “organic” and “non-organic” or “conventional” systems, there are differences. The major components of production which differ between these two systems include transplant production, soil fertility management, and insect, disease, and weed management. “Organic” usually refers to a crop management system that promotes biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. Organic production concentrates on natural processes and how to manage them. Other materials and products are additions to, not replacements for, management. An organic system takes time to develop. It may be achieved in stages, for example by starting with organic soil amendments and other soil improving procedures. Then, try biological control of pests, some companion plants, etc. Eventually, the entire system will be changed. It will take years to convert to a healthy organic system.

Sustainable horticulture seeks to produce nutritious and economically valuable crops while conserving soil, water, biodiversity, and other natural resources. This chapter examines organic, natural, and broader sustainable production systems and their underlying principles. Topics include organic inputs, compost, biofertilizers, biological pest management, crop diversification, mulching, recycling, soil-health improvement, and reduced dependence on synthetic inputs. Certification systems and market requirements are also considered, including Indian and international organic standards. The chapter distinguishes different production philosophies while emphasizing practical sustainability. Successful systems must maintain productivity, profitability, environmental quality, and consumer confidence. Sustainable horticulture therefore combines ecological principles with sound crop management, market awareness, and responsible resource use

Cucumis melo var. conomon or Oriental pickled melon is a veining annual vegetable native to China and India. In the summer, it produces yellow blooms, and in the fall, it harvests the fruit. The petals are crumpled because it belongs to the Cucumis genus.

Botany and taxonomy: The fruit’s outer surface is glossy and can be white or green, but it’s known as shiro-uri because when fully ripe, it turns white and is whiter than a cucumber. It’s a melon variety, but it’s used in cooking since it has a lighter sweetness and flavour, as well as a crisp texture when chewed. It contains vitamin C, vitamin B1, and carotene, however the majority of its constituents are water and low in calories.

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.

History of Agriculture
Cultivation of crops is one of the oldest occupations of mankind and probably began when it was discovered that certain seeds spilled on disturbed ground, grew in some mysterious way into new plants. The seeds were then collected and spread into different regions. This is how origin and introduction of crop plants started. Development of agriculture about 12,000 to13,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming. However, scientists are unable to explain why man took so long to discover agriculture. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New world were involved as independent centers of origin however, there was no single factor or combination of factors that led people to try farming in different parts of the world. Farming could have been brought on by climate changes at the end of the last ice age that favoured different annual plants like wild cereals to grow. But whatever the reasons for its independent origins, farming sowed the seeds for the modern age. Archeological evidence for the origin of crops points to mountainous areas of both Old World (Asia, Europe and Africa) and New World (North and South America), which have pronounced wet and dry seasons. Under such climatic conditions seeds would need to germinate, grow quickly with the onset of rains, complete their reproductive cycles and go to seed formation before summer sets in such as we see in annual plants.

A garden has a number of elements which give shape to its breath-taking view. Both animate and inanimate elements are included to achieve a beautiful garden The living elements are lawns, rock garden, water garden, sunken garden, hedges, edges, shrubs, topiary, flower bed, specimen plants, pergola and arches, while the inanimate elements, also called as adornments, are stones, road, footpaths, seats, lamps, lanterns, steps, bridges, huts, swings, fountain, cascade, bird bath, clock tower, umbrellas, sculptures etc.

1. Introduction

Nursery is a place, where seedlings and saplings of different ornamental plants (trees, shrubs, climbers, annuals, potted plants etc.) are propagated and maintained until they are out-planted in a prepared bed or in pots. Establishment of an ornamental nursery is emerging as a profitable venture, especially around cities. Rapid urbanization has led to the development of community parks and various sites for people to engage in active and passive recreation. This has led to surge in demand for quality planting material, which ensures rapid establishment and beautification of the landscape site. The following chapter deals with the basic principles and practices of establishment of ornamental plant nursery, with reference to its effective management to enhance the income and reap better profit.

Jasmine

Jasmine oil and its synthetic substitutes are extensively used in high grade perfumes in the western countries, the main buyers being USA, France, UK, Japan, Holland and Russia. Essential oil production is an export oriented agro industry in Egypt, France, Morocco, Belgium, Germany, Tunisia, Italy, Algeria, China and India. It is also used for perfuming expensive soaps and cosmetics, mouthwashes and dentifrices. 

Jasmine oil is unique and the odour of jasmine cannot be imitated by any known synthetic chemicals. There is hardly any perfume of floral origin which does not contain at least a small quantity of jasmine concrete or absolute. The world production of jasmine concrete is approximately 20 tones/year and India’s production is 2 tones.

What is seed?

“A seed is an embryo, a living organism securely fixed in the supporting or the food storage tissue.”

A true seed is defined as “Structurally a true seed is a fertilized matured ovule, consisting of an embryonic plant, a store of food and a protective seed coat, a store of food consists of cotyledons and endosperm”. In broad sense, “seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose”. Scientifically, “seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered with seed coat is called seed” or “it is a propagating material i.e., part of agriculture, sericulture, silviculture and horticultural plants used for sowing or planting purpose”.

The business of Seed Technology is to protect this biological entity and look after its ‘welfare’, while the focus of Food Technology is on the second component – the supporting tissue.

ABSTRACT

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is an important crop in the tropics and subtropics for export of fruits and above all, for local consumption. Cultivation of papaya faces with problems due to its heterozygosity, dioecious nature and susceptibility to a large number of viral diseases. Crossing between two hermaphrodites will produce the highest ratio of fruit bearing female trees, which is of homozygous dominant andromonoecious types which are always letha l due to po st fertilization barriers leading to their abortion. The gynodioecious varieties of papaya have the M1M1 forms while selfing and hence for explant selection , gynodioecious varieties like Sunrise solo and CO7 were prefered Embryo culture is one of the earliest forms of in vitro culture applied to solve practical problems and is probably the tissue culture techniques that has proven of greatest value to breeders. Ovule culture is practised in a case when small (or) young embryos that abort at early stages of development and are difficult to isolate. This necessiates the development of a protocol for initiation, multiplication and regeneration of ovular callus of papaya.

1. Introduction

Therapeutic plants have different metabolites in them because of which they are generally utilized in the whole world by individuals to fix different illnesses. India has a rich history of involving many plants for therapeutic purposes. Therapeutic plants are assuming an exceptionally dynamic part in conventional medications for the treatment of different afflictions. India is a rich wellspring of restorative plants because of the varieties in soil, their heights, and other ecological and geological conditions. India’s utilization of plants for medical services goes back nearly 5000 years, when Ayurveda systematized around 8000 natural cures by utilizing plants. Root and tuber crops possess a striking situation in the food security of the creating scene because of their high caloric worth and sugar content. Some of them are as of now under development; however different species are developing wild as a dismissed gathering of financial plants. A portion of the tuberous species is significant due to their restorative as well as modern application.