eChapters

Abstract

The runners of ten strawberry cultivars were procured from different research stations, planted in the last week of October every year and mulched with paddy straw.  The earliest flowering was observed in Chandler, which produced the largest sized fruits (13.20 g) followedby Dana.(3.6 g). Higher incidence of fruit rot was observed in Chandler (26.2%) and least in the Sweet Charlie (9.3%). Sweet Charlie produced medium sized (11.80 g), highly glossy and attractive fruits having high TSS (10.2%), and minimum fruit rot can be better substitute for Chandler in sub-tropical areas.

2.1 Introduction

Perfumery, the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. The history of perfume began in antiquity. The word perfume is used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, “per fumum”, meaning through smoke. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. The world’s first recorded perfume maker Tapputi was mentioned in a Cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. Perfume and perfumery also existed in India. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic Charaka Samhita. The Bible describes a sacred perfume, consisting of liquid myrrh, fragrant cinnamon and cassia. In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6^th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. Al-Kindi in the 9^th century wrote a book on perfumes entitled ‘Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations’ that has more than hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs.

Abstract

Foliar N and P content of olive trees have shown a gradual increase from the month of October till May. But gradual decrease in leaf K content occurred between the months of October to February, where after a gradual but continuous increase in its content was noted till the month of May. However, foliar Ca and Mg contents also registered an increase between the months of October to January, but thereafter, a continuous decrease in their content was evident till the month of May. Relatively higher N, P and K contents were estimated during non- cropped year as compared to the cropped year. But converse was true for Ca and Mg content. Among different cultivars maximum values of foliar N, P, K, Ca and Mg were found in Frantoio, followed by Leccino, while minimum values of leaf macronutrients were recorded in Ascolano. Thus maximum values of leaf N, P, K, Ca, Mg ensured regular bearing behaviour of the cultivar whereas deficiencies of these nutrients tended to induce erratic bearing behavior of the cultivar.

Botany: Periwinkles (Catharanthus roseus) belonging to the family Apocynaceae are evergreen perennials that produce bright blue flowers. They grow best in well-draining, moist soil and partial sun to full shade. They work well as sprawling groundcover or border plants and bloom from early spring to early fall. Periwinkles are often grown as transplants, but they can be started from seed about 10 weeks before the last frost with the proper care.

Varieties: Nirmal, Dhawal and Prabal

Soil and climate: It is suited to all types of soil and tropical climatic conditions. Well distributed annual rainfall of 100 cm or more is ideal for raising as a rainfed crop.

Seeds and planting: Propagated through seeds either by direct sowing or throughtransplanting.

Seed rate: 2.5 kg/ha : Direct sowing

0.5 kg/ha : Through seedlings

45 - 60 days old seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 45 x 20 cm during June - July or September - October.

Sphingid larva: Dilephila nerii :Sphingidae

The large larvae cause severe damage to plants by feeding extensively on leaves, buds and flowers.They are very big and can easily be hand picked and killed or fed to poultry.

Persimmons are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The genus contains nearly 400 species including the horticulturally important, Diospyros kaki, D. virginiana and D. lotus. The persimmon cultivated mainly for fruit is D. kaki, which is called the Japanese persimmon, Oriental persimmon, or simply Kaki. The generic name is derived from the Greek ‘dios’ (meaning divine) and ‘pyros’ (meaning grain of wheat), referring to the excellent fruit of the genus. The specific name kaki is from the Japanese common name given by Carl Peter Thunberg (1743–1828), a Swedish naturalist and medical doctor, and a pupil of Linnaeus. He stayed in Japan from 1775 to 1776 and published “Flora Japonica” in 1784 introducing many Japanese plants.

Introduction

Agriculture in general and horticulture in particular are highly vulnerable to year-to-year climatic variability. Farmers and other decision makers in agriculture make decisions based on their understanding of general climatic patterns for their regions. Crops are constantly threatened by pests such as insects and nematodes, as well as diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and other micro-organisms. However, depending on weather conditions, the severity is very variable from year to year and often control strategies are applied without considering the climatic variability. Moreover, following the global climate change predictions, meteorological conditions triggering pest population/disease infection cycles are destined to increase, leading to consequent increase of the pests/diseases pressure. Sustainable plant protection strategies rely on weather and climate related pest and disease forecasting models in order to:

Abstract

Ten pests belonging to six insect and mite orders were recorded infesting strawberry cv. Chandler in Paonta and Doon Valleys of North Indian during 2001-04. Out of these Heliothis armigera Hubner, Spodoptera litura F., Thrips tabaci  Kheg, Holotrichia insularis Brenke, Odontotermes obesus Ramb and Tetranychus telarius L were of primary significance. Two fortnightly application of endosulfan (0.05%) from mid April proved effective in containing the attack of first two most devastating pests.

Taxonomy is the science of identifying (discovering), describing, naming and classifying organisms. It is a complex summing up of knowledge starting with thorough analysis to base the synthesis that will end up in the name of a taxon. Correct identification of biological taxa is a necessary pre-requisite to all other enquiries about the biological world.

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as
per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004).

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.), popularly known as “mum” or “guldaudi”, is a major commercial ornamental plant grown for cut flowers, loose flowers, and garden display. Belonging to the family Asteraceae, it is valued for its vibrant colors, diverse flower shapes, and long vase life. Chrysanthemum is attacked by several insect and mite pests, affecting both foliage and floral quality, leading to reduced aesthetic and commercial value.
Distribution: Widely distributed in India wherever chrysanthemum and sunflower are grown.
Biology: The eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves, obliquely inserted into the tissue, with opercula appearing as whitish or brown dots. The incubation period for the eggs lasts about 5 to 7 weeks. Following hatching, the nymphs undergo hemimetabolous development (no true pupal stage). The nymphal period spans 2 to 3 weeks, during which the nymphs moult five times before reaching adulthood. Adult insects are approximately 4 mm long, with blackish bodies and lace-like transparent wings (Rizkawati et al., 2023).

Pesticides are an undeniable part of modern life, used to protect everything from flower gardens to agricultural crops from specific pests. Pesticides have contributed significantly to improving quality of life and safeguarding the environment. Some 20 to 40 percent of the world’s potential crop production is already lost annually because of the effects of weeds, pests and diseases (according to the FAO reports) (www.CropLifeAmerica.mht). In addition to increasing crop yields, crop protection products used in stored products can also prolong the viable life of products, prevent huge post-harvest losses from pests and diseases and protect food safety for eating.

India is the world’s second largest producer of fruits, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota, aonla, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub-tropical parts and peach, pear, almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the temperate parts are also grown in a sizeable area. Date palm and fig cultivation is also finding favour in some areas. The major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

Production of fruits in India is 44.04 million tones from an area of 3.72 million hectares. One of the bottlenecks in fruit production is the losses incurred by insect pest and diseases which necessitated the use of pesticides to curb the pest problem. Use of pesticides in India is very low 0.350–0.5 kg/hectare as compared to 7.0 kg/hectare in USA, 2.5 kg/hectare in Europe, 12 kg/hectare in Japan and 6.6 kg/hectare in Korea. Despite of low pesticide consumption in India, there is a great problem of pesticide residues vis-a-vis other countries and these residues have entered into food products and underground water because of non-prescribed use of chemical pesticides, wrong advice and supply of pesticides to farmers by vested interests, non-observance of prescribed waiting period, pre-marketing pesticide treatments during storage and transport, use of sub-standard pesticides, effluents from pesticide manufacturing units, continued use of persistent pesticides for public health programme, lack of awareness and lack of aggressive educational programmes for farmers/consumers.

Spices are defined as “A strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “Any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. The word “spice” came from the Latin word “species,” meaning specific kind. The name reflects the fact that all plant parts have been cultivated for their aromatic fragrant, pungent or any other desirable properties including the seed (aniseed, caraway, coriander), leaf (cilantro, kari, bay, mint), berry (allspice, juniper, black pepper), bark (cinnamon), kernel (nutmeg), aril (mace), stem (chives), stalk (lemongrass), rhizome (ginger, turmeric, galangal), root (lovage, horse radish), flower (saffron), bulb (garlic, onion), fruit (star anise, cardamom, chile pepper) and flower bud (clove). Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purpose. Herbs, such as a basil or orengano, may be used fresh and are commonly chopped in to smaller pieces; spices however are dried and usually ground in to a powder (Anonymous, 2007).

In ancient times, spices were as precious as gold, and as significant as medicines, preservatives and perfumes. India is known as the home of spices and produces a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom (small and large), ginger, garlic, turmeric, chilli and a large variety of tree and seed spices. These have nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. They are good not only for our taste buds but also for our health. They have medicinal properties and also used as preservatives. Spices are well known appetizers, digestives and considered essential in culinary art all over the world. Some of them have antioxidant properties, while others possess strong antimicrobial and antibiotic activities. Spices increase the secretion of saliva rich in ptyalin, which facilitates starch digestion in the stomach, rendering the meals, which are rich in carbohydrates, more digestible. They inhibit thrombus formation and accelerate thromobolysis (Anonymous, 2007a).

The noun vegetable means an edible plant or part of a plant, but usually excludes seeds and most sweet fruits. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant. Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein or fat (Woodruff,1995 and Whitaker, 2001) and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, provitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates. They contain a great variety of other phytochemicals, some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticarcinogenic properties (Gruda, 2005; Steinmetz and Potter,1996). Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function. Some contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well. However, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients such as á-solanine, á-chaconine,(Science direct) enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, and more (Bad Bug Bock > BBB–Clostridium botulinum). Depending on the concentration, such compounds may reduce the edibility, nutritional value, and health benefits of dietary vegetables. Cooking and/or other processing may be necessary to eliminate or reduce them. Diets containing recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables may help to lower the risk of heart diseases and two type of diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss. The potassium provided by vegetables may help to prevent the formation of kidney stones.

Tropical tuber and root crops are subjected to the depredation of a number of insect and non insect pests. Comprehensive studies revealed that cassava is attacked by a wide range of arthropod and rodent pests. An exhaustive global account of cassava pests and their management was given by Anon (1978), Bellotti and Schoonhoven (1978) and Bellotti et al. (1999). Lal and Pillai (1982); Pillai and Palaniswami (1984), Pillai (1994) and Palaniswami (1999) reviewed the pests of cassava in India. Anon (1978), Sutherland (1986) and Jansson and Raman (1991) covered world sweet potato pests. Palaniswami (1999) detailed the pests attacking sweet potato in India. Pests of edible aroids, yams and chinese potato were comprehensively reported by Anon (1978); Mitchell and Maddison (1983) and Palaniswami (1994, 1999). In India about 34 species of insects and non-insect pests infest cassava, 80 species attack sweet potato, 46 species on edible aroids, 21 on yams and 10 on chinese potato. One of the main factors for the low productivity of these crops in India is attributed to the pest complex attacking them (Chadha, 2001).

Amaranthus is an important leafy vegetable and is grown all over the Indian subcontinent. Amaranthus tricolor Linn and A. blittum Linn. are the common varieties cultivated. These herbaceous annuals are a rich source of proteins, vitamins A and C, and iron. The foliage is a good source of calcium, iron, and vitamins A, B, and C. In contrast, grains are good sources of important amino acids, particularly lysine, and are rich in dietary fibre, calcium, and minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and manganese. It enhances the body’s immune system and antioxidant status while lowering blood pressure and cholesterol. Fresh leaves and tender stems are used as vegetables. Production of amaranthus is affected by the incidence of pests. Cultivated amaranth is currently infested by a total of 92 different insect pests. (Rajeshkanna et al., 2017) among which the leaf webbers and amaranthus stem weevil are the most important pests.
Biology: Black moth with dark brown wings bearing white wavy markings on wings. Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Egg period 3 to 4 days. Larval duration will be completed within a period of 2 weeks. Pupation occurs among the leaf webbings and pupal duration lasts for 10 days. Several larvae can be seen inside each leaf web.

Anthurium is a famous decorative cut flower and pot plant in the Araceae (order Spathiflorae) genus because of its extended vase life and beautiful, long-lasting inflorescences. After orchids, anthurium sales are the second-highest in the world.
Anthurium Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Moulton
Order : Thysanoptera
Family : Thripidae
Biology: Chaetanaphothrips orchidii are small, pale yellow thrips commonly found in unopened anthurium buds and flowers. These pests are also commonly found in orchids. Females reproduce parthogenetically and on an average 80-100 eggs are laid by each female (Hata and Hara, 1998). Eggs are inserted inside the flower bud or leaf sheath. Nymphs are light yellowish in colour and are similar to the adults. Pupation takes place beneath the host plant in the soil or growing media. The entire life cycle lasts approximately 28 to 32 days but can extend up to 3 months, depending on the temperature. Increased temperatures and humidity, along with new growth of host plants, seem to promote thrips feeding and reproduction, resulting in heavier infestations and greater damage during the summer months

Black pepper, popularly known as the “King of spices”, is the most popular spice crop in the world, and the crop originated in the Western Ghats and Malabar coast of India. India was the centre of pepper trade from time immemorial. Recently, black pepper production in the country remained stagnant at around 90000 tonnes in the last few years. Hence, India is losing its status as a leading producer and exporter of black pepper. Kerala accounts for 75 per cent of total black pepper production in the country. It has been noted that the increase in area under cultivation is not in tune with the increase in production. Low productivity is mainly due to the incidence of pests and diseases.
Black pepper is infested by 56 species of insects in India; among these, pollu beetle, (Lanka ramakrishnae Prathapan & Viraktamath), top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa Meyr), scale insects (Lepidosaphes piperis and Aspidiotus destructor) are considered as major pests (Devasahayam, 2000).
It is one of the most destructive pests of black pepper and the infestation is severe in plains of Malabar region (20-30 %) and low in hilly tracts (Wayanad and Idukki) and South Kerala.
Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998).